1(a) The four (4) main sources of knowledge are:
(i) Empirical Knowledge
(ii) Rational
(iii) Revealed
(iv) Intuitive or Insight Knowledge

i. Empirical Knowledge
We obtain this knowledge through observation of the things around us, through our senses and through personal experiences from actions which we are involved. It is the characteristic of knowledge in the science, both natural and social. Knowledge acquired through seeing objects, hearing sounds, tasting flavour, feeling something or smelling odour is empirical knowledge. In short, our endowed senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling are the gateways to scientific knowledge. This is a very important type of knowledge and it is very much valued in today's world of science and technology. Senses alone without reason cannot furnish us with this kind of knowledge.

ii. Rational Knowledge
This is the knowledge derived by reasoning that is not by observation, but by inferring new knowledge from what we already know. As the mathematical subjects are good examples of national knowledge, so also are subjects like philosophy and logic. Given some hypothesis or premise, we can go ahead to deduce a number of conclusions that must necessarily follow. For example, given the premise that a man is a bachelor, it follows as of necessity that he is not married. Or the fact that there is a teacher implies that there must be a learner. From the presence of the teacher, we logically infer or deduce that there must be a learner or some learners who he teacher. The hallmark of this type of knowledge is that the conclusions being inferred must logically follow from what went before. It is a law of seasoning and argumentation, which applies most school subjects.

iii. Revealed Knowledge
This is the characteristic of religious, especially the reveal ones.
The religions which most of us are familiar with are Christianity and Islam, through the Bible and Quoran. This type of knowledge was revealed to the prophets of these religious who faithfully recorded the knowledge for mankind and imparted the contents to their followers. The method of the original acquisition was by vision or trance, possibly only those who are holy enough or those to whom God or Allah had chosen to reveal Himself. This type of knowledge is not open to observation, or empirical tests, nor can be proven by logic and human reasoning. It just has to be accepted by faith.

iv. Intuitive or Insight Knowledge
This is knowledge that is acquired directly by an immediate contact going through the process of reasoning. It comes as a flash into the mind. It can come in form of inventive intuition when in a our mind as a kind of vision. Archimedes was reported to have had a vision of the law of floatation in a flash while taking his bath. He was so overwhelmed by the vision that he rushed naked to record such a very important insightful knowledge before it escaped his memory.

1(b) Relationship between Knowledge and Education
Knowledge is a condition for education, but is not sufficient one.

Knowledge is neutral, i.e knowledge can be used either positively or negatively by the possessor of knowledge. Education on the other hand always implies a positive state of the mind. To be worthwhile is what constitutes education. What is not worthwhile is not education. Education always implies improvement, betterment etc. Many activities in life, including criminal activities like armed robbery, pick pocketing, fraud, 419, etc require use of knowledge. Undoubtedly, these are typical examples of negative use of knowledge to harm us for the selfish interests of those who perpetuate such acts. Such could be typical cases when we say that a person or persons have the knowledge of advance fee fraud, but mis-educated, or a person who is undoubtedly knowledgeable but morally bankrupt. One can also be called an intellectual giant, but mis-educated. Since there are as many negative uses to which knowledge can be applied, there are so many positive ways of using knowledge. Knowledge becomes education where it is used positively for the benefit of the individual and the larger society. On the contrary, where knowledge is used to harm others and it's potentially to do harm, it is not qualified to be called education. That is why a knowledgeable person is not necessarily an educated person. Until the knowledge is evaluated person. Until the knowledge is evaluated and adjudged to be positive and worthwhile.

The criteria of knowledge have several important implications to the content, process wand evaluation in education. In terms of content, it suggests that no item on the curriculum must be included that has no existential reference. Similarly, they are suggesting that knowledge is of no worth unless it can be made use of. Concerning methods, the criteria of knowledge demands of teachers to always be certain about what they teach as well as make themselves as explicit as possible rather than being contradictory. In the same way, they ensure that the criteria of certainty validity ad should always be certain of what they say or write clearly. It is, for instance, not an achievement when the same can be done simply and clearly.

2(a) The five (5) national goals through which Nigeria's philosophy of education draws its strength are:
(1) A free and democratic society;
(2) A just and egalitarian society;
(3) A united, strong and self-reliant nation;
(4) A land full of bright opportunities for all citizens; and
(5) A great and dynamic economy.

2(b) Factors that could hinder the realization of the national goal.
Great and Dynamic Economy are:
"A great and dynamic economy" can never be achieved in a mono economy like ours. A nation that depends on exportation of oil as the major source of revenue without adequate production can never be a great economy. A nation that depends on buying and selling, strives on importation of fake and adulterated goods, indulges in foreign borrowing, stashes her money in foreign accounts etc can never boast of a great and dynamic economy.

However, one of the national goals implies that the Nigerian State shall put in place, a favourable environment through democratic process that will bring about positive changes. The economy will be liberalized. Production encouraged. Agriculture and other sectors, other than oil, encouraged to improve the national economy. The enabling environment that would encourage individual (private) and foreign investment in all the sectors of the economy, certainly would build "a great and dynamic economy".

3(i) The Source
The source of revealed knowledge is God or Allah and it is revealed to those whom He chose to revealed Himself, whereas intuitive comes as a flash into mind.

3(ii) Methods of Acquisitions
Revealed knowledge method of the original acquisition was by vision or trance, possible only by those who are holy enough or those to whom God or Allah had chosen to reveal Himself. Whereas, in intuitive knowledge it is acquired directly by an immediate contact of the mind with the object without going through the process of reasoning. It comes as a flash into the mind.

3(iii) Validation
Revealed knowledge is not open to observation or empirical tests, nor can be proven by logic and human reasoning. It just has to be accepted by faith. Is considered as the final word of God. Whereas, in intuitive an individual will be so overwhelmed the vision that he can suspend whatever he is doing to record such a very important insightful knowledge before it escaped his memory. Intuitive knowledge can be considered knowledge once the intuitive can be proved empirically or substantiated with adequate reasons. If this can't be done, what we have may only amount to a feeling or opinion and never knowledge.

3(iv) Teacher's Emphasis
An aspect of the curriculum where revealed knowledge is common is religious studies, whether Christian or Islam. Now, the very nature of this subject requires that we do not pretend to support what we teach with proofs and reasons. Doing this can lead to serious consequences, the teacher needs only to present the materials as given and make the students see them as knowledge that is beyond human understanding and which on account of that is accepted by faith.

Whereas in intuitive knowledge, we concede that this type of knowledge has great value in education. This is particularly so because most scientific discoveries have been the products of insight or intuition. The educational value of this is that as teacher, we should always encourage our students to always listen to their inner voice or flash of ideas. Putting these down and trying to prove them their empirically or rationally should be the next step. In all, such flash of ideas could form a useful source of classroom discussion or even students' experimentation.

3(v) Striking Examples
Revealed knowledge is the characteristic of religious, especially the revealed ones. The religious which most of us are familiar with are Christianity and Islam, through the Bible and Koran, that is the striking example of revealed knowledge.

Whereas, the striking examples intuitive knowledge is Archimedes who was reported to have had a vision of the law of floatation in a flash while taking his bath. He was so overwhelmed by the vision that he rushed naked to record such a very important insightful knowledge before it escaped his memory. Musicians and artists do enjoy such intuition, occasionally and the result is beautiful peace of artwork or music. For example, the celebrated Hausa musician, Alhaji Muhammadu Shata, of blessed memory.

4. Five (5) significant landmarks of realism in education:
(1) Education should enable the child to be intellectually well balanced in harmony with his physical and Social environment.
(2) Education should make provision for the child's interest and curiosity i.e education should be child centred.
(3) Education should be geared towards assisting the child on discovering reality.
(4) The role of the teacher in the training of the child is very crucial. Since the teacher determines what the child should learn, the teacher himself must be knowledgeable and be a role model.
(5) Value is permanent and objective, established by reason or sanctioned by God to whom all must give account.

5(a) "School of thought in education"
School of thought is regarded as a group of notable people who have common point of view or principles on some issues. The principle or idea is often borne out of well thought out and most often painstakingly researched work over a number of years. To the group, the idea or opinion shared or the common point of view is the incontrovertible truth, the truth, nothing but the truth. This common opinion is often held at a very high esteem by the society and respected since such opinion has a very rich contribution to the educational system of that society.

5(b) i. Realism
Realism is a school of philosophy which believes that all that exist, is resolvable into matter or has the characteristics of matter, which is the ultimate reality. It argues that the universe is not an illusion but actually exists in concrete form, independent of being known. Realists maintain that something is real when it is experienced thus they say, seeing is believing.

ii. Idealism
Ordinarily, idealism is a belief in a perfect life or situation etc. Even when it is likely that such a situation can never be achieved. This school of thought believes that "Ultimate reality is spiritual rather than physical, mental rather than material". In its radical form, idealism believes that reality is nothing but an activity of an individual's mind and thoughts.

Invariably therefore, perfection, the philosophers believe, exists in the world of ideas. They regard the belief that the universe is real as basically a religious point of view. The believed in the dualism of nature i.e that spirit and matter constitute the universe, that this dualism exists in everything. Thus, all that exists in the universe is a manifestation of the spirit. These proponents believe that man is a spiritual being who exercise free will and is responsible for all his actions and inactions. Man can therefore not be studied simply as an object because he is a spiritual being.

iii. Existentialism
Existentialism emphasizes that human beings are free and responsible for their actions in a world without meaning. In other words, the world has no order, no meaning and no purpose. The only essence to him is his existence. Therefore, what the individual thinks or does should be decided by himself. This determination involves the individual himself in thinking e.g in reflecting, calculating, and all other activities in the individual's endeavour. It submits that an individual exists in concrete form. This being, has freedom to choose or not to. This freedom entails commitment and responsibility. Thus, if an individual makes a choice he is responsible for this choice, if he fails to make a choice, he will of necessity take the risk and responsibility following his inaction.

iv. Pragmatism
Pragmatism, which was development by the America philosophers Charles Sandes Peirce and William James in the 19th Century, has its central focus on the practical and scientific utility of knowledge.

Pragmatism has been known by various names and time as instrumentalism, functionalism, experimentalism and progressivism. Pragmatism as a theory holds that knowledge is only meaningful if our senses can experience it. In other words, this theory believes in practical ideas and experimentation. Basically, pragmatism addresses the following about man and nature:
(1) That nothing is permanent and the only thing that is permanent is change
(2) That values are relative
(3) That man has both biological and social nature
(4) That man is very intelligent and calls for the use of his critical intellectual ability.

5(c) Explaining the Hegelian coherent theory of truth and its educational implications.
Hegal is of the opinion that knowledge is valid only to the extent that it forms a system – this statement is regarded as the Hegelian coherent theory of truth i.e knowledge is unified not fragmented. Thus, teaching must be systematic and unified. This has implications for curriculum development.

6(a) The Concept of Ethics
The concept of ethics is the systematic study of the norms of human behaviour. The purpose of studying these norms is to ensure that human behaviour conforms to them. The study of ethics can be likened to the study of logic. The study of ethics helps to elevate one's normal standard. A training in ethics should enable us see the defects in our own and other people's conduct and to understand exact nature so that if the desire is there, we are better able to set things right in our own conduct and make profitable suggestions to others. It does not follow, however, as of necessity that those who did not study ethics might not attain a high moral standard, or the study of logic is a precondition for correct reasoning, implying that those without the knowledge of logic do not think correctly. Plato's famous saying that "knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice" is worth revisiting here to buttress the importance of the study of ethics for upliftment of high moral standard. He who knows is more likely disposed to doing the right thing than he who does not know.

6(b) Relating Ethics to Education
Ethics is concerned with the study of human conduct, human behaviour and action. It is concerned with what is good as distinction from what is bad, what is right and what is wrong? What is duty and what is obligation? How are all these related to education? Firstly, let us begin with the popular saying of Plato that knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice. We educate man to enable him understand the positive and negative aspects of life and be responsible for choosing any. This is because Socrates and Plato argue that evildoers are suffering from ignorance. Knowledge helps to unveil us of darkness of ignorance. Man, is the most earlier.

Favoured of all creatures because he is the only one that receives education. This makes him more to live by certainly than by enhance. Knowledge enables man to control his environment through his interaction to suit his purpose. Education helps man to appreciate other people in the society, community of nations and the human race as a whole. Man is educated to benefit himself and benefit the society. This helps man to develop social and values which are important in the sustenance of the individual and the society. The development of positive social values and attitude helps to improve his personality and character which are the hallmark of all educated person. Man is a social animal who is not capable of solitary life. By implication, he lives in every society where man finds himself is built on the principles of morality as its foundation. Since man is capable of being good and bad, he needs to be prepared to do good at all times through education. This is what makes education value laden enterprise because it aims at the betterment of man in order to live a better life in the society.

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YEAR: 2010 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
PDE 108 (FORMERLY 205)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Differentiate between 'concept' and 'construct' in educational research.

2a. Briefly explain the following types of research
i. Historical Research
ii. Survey Research
iii. Experimental Research

b. Outline and discuss the five (5) characteristics of educational research

3. Identify a research topic and state the different steps to take in carrying out the research.

4. Explain the differences between the following concepts
i. Research report and research proposal
ii. Limitation and delimitation of study
iii. Research question and research hypothesis
iv. Research instrument and statistical procedure
v. Population and sample

5. Explain the following components of research methodology
i. Research design
ii. Sampling techniques
iii. Instrumentation
iv. Data collection
v. Data Analysis

6a. Define the term variables
b. Discuss any five (5) common variables applied to educational research.

1. The term 'concept' has similar meaning to 'construct'. A concept is an abstraction from observed event: it is usually a word that represents the similarities or common aspects of subject or events that are otherwise different from one another, example are chair, cat, dog, tree, sheep, gas, solid, liquid etc. These words describe common aspects of things that are otherwise diverse. The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking by including a number of events under one general heading. Some concepts of events and close to the events they represent. For instance, the concept of tree may be easily illustrated by pointing to specific trees around us. Also the meaning of the concept dog is grasped because we can point to dogs around us. The concept is an abstraction of the characteristics of dogs that are more or less 'heavy' or 'light'. "Mass", "energy", and "force" are concepts used by physical scientists. They are of course more abstract than concepts such as "weight", "height", and "length". "Achievement" is an abstraction formed from the observation of certain behaviours in children. These behaviours are associated with the mastery of "learning" of school task like reading ability, formation of words, solving mathematical problems, drawing pictures etc. The various observed behaviours are put together and expressed in a word like "achievements" and "intelligence". "Aggressiveness", "conformity", and "honesty" are all concepts used to express varieties of human behaviour of interest to behavioural scientists.

Whereas a construct is a concept that has the added meaning of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special purpose. "Intelligence" is a concept, an abstraction from the observation of presumably intelligent and non-intelligent behaviours. But as a scientific construct, "intelligence" means both more or less than it may be as a concept. It means that scientists consciously and systematically use it in two ways, first, it enters into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. We may say, for example, the school achievement is in part a function of intelligence and motivation.

Secondly, "intelligence" is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured. We can make observations of the intelligence of the children by administering x-intelligence text to them, or we can ask teachers to tell us the relative degree of intelligence of their pupils/students, (Kerlinger, 1973).

2a(i) Historical Research
Research in this case is based on oral evidence: (Monly, 1978) records such as dairies, case history, autobiography, logbooks etc. Books; journals, magazines, etc are also useful documents. The purpose of an historical research is to obtain a better understanding of the present, through the evaluation of the past and intelligent prediction of the future. An historical research aids in avoiding past errors and predicting the future and also refreshes ones memory on what is known and unfolds what is not known. There are two main sources of collecting historical data. There are primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are relics and other things that have direct physical relationships e.g. observations and participation. A secondary source deals with bibliographies, references, materials and documents recorded by someone else. These are less reliable than the primary sources. In this type of research approach, statistical hypotheses are rarely used.

2a(ii) Survey type
Survey type of research can also be called a descriptive research. This type of research is based on information gathered through questionnaires, interview (oral, written, structured, constructed, etc.), inventories, rating scales, self-report, and observations. Descriptive research is used to find the meaning and obtain an understanding of the present condition. The results obtained through this procedure can be statistically analyzed.

2a(iii) Experimental (Empirical) Type
Experimental type of research involves conducting experiments for research process. The researcher will find out the effect of manipulating some variables by providing various treatments and later compared with an untreated group called control group. The results obtained through this procedure are usually statistically analyzed. Experimental research is a precise research technique designed to solve specific educational problems. It is perhaps the most reliable type of research that determines situations. In conducting experimental research, three types of variables are usually taken into consideration. They are dependable, independent, and intervening variables.

2(b) Five (5) characteristics of Educational Research
i. It is empirical;
ii. It is Theoretical;
iii. It is cumulative;
iv. It is non-Ethical;
v. It is verifiable.

Empirical
It is empirical because it involves the collection of data that can be used to draw conclusion. Conclusions are not based on what the author feels or think but on concrete evidence – derived from the data collected by careful observation of the events being investigated.

Theoretical
Education research, as a scientific research, also aims at the building of a relevant theory that can explain certain phenomena among variables in educational situations.

Cumulative
Each scientific investigation tries to build upon existing facts and theories and helps in refining and extending the existing principles.

Non-ethical
It does not consider issues. That is, scientific investigations do not seek answers to questions such as whether an action is right or wrong. They attempt to find the logical explanation for any action and avoid value judgement.

Verifiable
A scientific investigation leads to verifiable results. The process adopted in any scientific investigation is such that it can be replicated by other researchers who invariably can get the same results, (Koleoso, 1999), all other things being equal.

Research topic:
"Factors Affecting Principals' Effectiveness in Secondary Schools".
i. Identifying a researchable problem area, or need worth investigating;
ii. reviewing or related literature to the research topic;
iii. formulating research questions and hypotheses; this is by formulating testable and measureable hypotheses and define the basic concepts and variables;
iv. Designing a study to collect pertinent data.
This is by stating the underlying assumptions which will govern the interpretation of results;
v. Collecting pertinent data for answering the research questions and testing the hypothesis;
vi. Selecting the subjects using appropriate sampling procedures:
This is by analyzing the data collected using appropriate statistics, the answer the research question and testing the hypotheses of the study;
vii. Control and/or manipulate relevant variables and established criteria to evaluate the outcome, identify what variable can be measured and how to measure them;
Viii. Drawing necessary inferences or conclusions based on the results of the analysis;
ix. Specify the data collection procedure that is questionnaires, test construction and administration, interview and observations;
x. Select the data analysis methodology (this could be through manual or computer);
xi. Evaluate results, draw conclusions, and make recommendations (Koleoso, 1999).

1(a) Teachers, learners and other are concerned about whether learning has actually taken place or not. For this reason, curriculum developers had to concern themselves with the identification of means to determine both quality and quantity of learning. If education is regarded as a process that seeks to change the behavior of learners in the direction of predetermined objectives, this can be achieved through the process of curriculum evaluation. Thus, evaluation can be defined as the process of determining the nature and extent of those changes in learner's behaviour after a programme of curriculum and instruction.

Evaluation per forms certain functions as an important phase of curriculum development which includes the following:
i. It is meant to check the reality of the hypotheses upon which the curriculum has been based;
ii. It serves a diagnostic function in the school and in curriculum development;
iii. Information on the variation in the achievement of individual learner is made possible by evaluation;
iv. Results of evaluation can provide adequate data which will enable the teacher to report to parents and the school management about the success or otherwise of the school.

1(b) Four models of curriculum evaluation are:

i. Tyler's Objectives-Centred Model
One of the earliest curriculum evaluation models, which continues to influence many assessment projects was that proposed by Ralph Tyler (1950) in his monograph Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. As explained in this work and used in numerous large-scale assessment efforts, the Tyler approach moved rationally and systematically through several related steps:

1. Begin with behavioural objectives that have been previously determined;
2. Identify the situations that will give the student the opportunity to express the behavior embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior;
3. Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the instruments for objectivity, reliability and validity;
4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results;
5. Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given periods;
6. Analyze the result;
7. Use the results to make the necessary modification in the curriculum.

This type of model is relatively easy to understand and apply and it focuses attention on curriculum strength and weaknesses.

ii. Stufflebeam's Context, Input, Process, Product Model
Daniel Stufflebeam (1971) model seemed to appeal to educational leaders because it emphasized the relevance of producing evaluative data for decision making 'decision making was the sole justification for evaluation in this model.

To service the needs of decision makers, the stufflebeam model provides a means for generating data relating to four stages of programme operation: context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation and product evaluation.
During each of these for stages, specific steps are taken:
1. The kinds of decision are identified;
2. The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified;
3. Those data are collected;
4. The criteria for determining quality are established;
5. The data are analysed on the basis of those criteria;
6. The needed information is provided to decision makers.

The Context, Input, Process, Product, (CIPP) Model, as it has come to be called, has several attractive features for those interested in curriculum evaluation. Its emphasis on decision making seems appropriate for administrators concerned with improving curricula.

iii. Scriven's Goal Free Model
Michael Scriven (1972), was the first to question the assumption that goals or objectives are crucial in the evaluation process.

In conducting a goal-free evaluation, the evaluator functions as an unbiased observer who begins by generating a profile of needs for the group served by a given programme (Scriven is somewhat vague as to how this needs profile is to be derived). Then, by using methods that are primarily qualitative in nature, the evaluator assesses the actual effects of the programme. If a programme has an effect that is responsive to one of the identified need, then the programme is perceived as useful.

Scriven's main contribution, obviously was to redirect the attention of evaluators and administrators to the importance of unintended effects - a redirection that seems especially useful in education. If a mathematics programme achieves its objectives of improving computational skills but has the unintended effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it cannot be judged completely successful.

iv. Stake's Responsive Model
Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to curriculum evaluation in his development of the responsive model, because the responsive model is based explicitly on the assumption that the concerns of the stakeholders - those for whom the evaluation is done - should be paramount in determining the evaluation issues. He recommends an interactive and recursive evaluation process that embodies these steps:

1. The evaluator meets with students, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives on and intentions regarding the evaluation;
2. The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to determine the scope of the evaluation project;
3. The evaluator observes the programme closely to get a sense of its operation and to note any unintended deviations from announced intents;
4. The evaluator discovers the stated and real purposes of the project and the concerns that various audiences have about it another evaluation;
5. The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which the evaluation should be concerned;
6. The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often, the means will be human observers or judges;
7. The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares 'portrayals' that communicate in natural ways the thematic reports;
8. BY again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders, the evaluator decides which audiences require which reports and chooses formats most appropriate for given audiences (as cited by Glatthorn, 1987, pp. 275-276).

(Repeated Question, 2012, No. 4).

The three (3) foundation areas in curriculum development include
i. Philosophical Foundation area
ii. Sociological Foundation area and
iii. Psychological foundation area

i. Philosophical Foundation Area
Curriculum decision involve the consideration of several issues in education such as: purpose of learning, sources of subject matter, characteristics of the learner, the nature teaching/learning process, etc. When these decisions are based upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one's philosophy education in curriculum development, it is termed "Philosophical Foundation Area".

The various schools of philosophical thought that had influenced the field of curriculum are: idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism. Education theories that had been seen to affect curriculum design are: essentialism and reconstructionism.

1. Idealism:
When considering the organization of the school curriculum plans, it is important to note that even children are born with inherent goodness and that they have within them a tendency to do what is good and right. Thus, they must be assisted in bringing up that goodness to the surface. This set of belief about education is based on the traditional philosophy of idealism.

2. Realism:
When a child is viewed as an ignorant and rational person, he must be directed towards worthwhile knowledge. Left to himself, he would probably remain ignorant. It is therefore, the responsibility of the teacher to identify worthwhile knowledge for transmission to students. This set of beliefs about education is based on the philosophy of realism.

3. Pragmatism
This school of thought believes that children are born with the physical and mental equipment which allows them full participation in their environment, whatever values and ideas people believed in would be regarded as tentative since future social development may refine or change them. As children grow up, what they know and how they behave are as a result of interacting with the world around them.

It's not any fixed body of knowledge but what will help them to understand more fully their interactions with their environment.

4. Existentialism
Philosophy of existentialism believe that people exist and as they grow, they develop ideas and values that are highly personal and not necessarily connected with any organized social pattern.

Education that will be given to children must centre on the perfections and feeling of the individual which will facilitate understanding of personal reaction to life situation.

5. Essentialism
This is of the view that education should prepare the learner to adjust to present conditions in society. Teachers within the school, according to this theory, play a directive role. They mainly disseminate information to learners.

6. Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is of the view that democracy has a value that should be developed. Emphasis in school should be on participation problem-solving, concern for social welfare and the application of systematic planning techniques. The school should therefore be a microcosm of a truly democratic society. The central focus of the curriculum is subject-matter from various fields that will be used as a vehicle for studying social problems.

ii. Sociological Foundation Area
When a child is born, he is born into a family, the family becomes the first agent of socializing him. As he grows up, it is noted that the school comes in as another agent of socialization. With time, it will be seen that the world of the child is larger than the home and the school and that world influences both his interests and attitude. The society maintained the school partly to help the growing child adapt to and prepare for life in the larger society. For this curriculum developers must put into consideration the characteristics of the contemporary society as well as, that of the future in which the child of today will live most of his life as a mature adult.

Also, children learn a lot ant-or-school from sources like: Television, parents, friends, the community, mosques and churches, print media like magazine, newspapers, etc. depending on the type of education the school provides, it becomes a major factor in the improvement of society.

Curriculum developers need to decide what kind of skills, knowledge and attitudes are needed by the society. Whether they should plan what will conform the existing social order, encourage questioning of those order, what issues and facts should be studied in schools should be their major concern when planning the school curriculum. Other social issues, according to Beane et al (9180), that curriculum planners should address are:
i. Technology;
ii. Family structure;
iii. Working in the information society;
iv. Changing sex roles;
v. Cultural diversity and pluralism;
vi. Changing lifestyles values;
vii. Futuristic transformation.

iii. Psychological Foundation Area
the psychological foundations of curriculum is concerned with basic needs of children which must be met if things will grow up and function well in the society in which they found themselves. What is being taught in schools should respond to these basic needs of youngsters at every stage of their growth and development. When planning any school curriculum, consideration should be given to the nature of and level of the learner, materials and learning experiences to be used. The nature of teaching learning interaction has been found to be critical to learning. For teaching to be effective, the teacher has to bear in mind activity's level of difficulty, learner's prior experience and skill and his own ability, understanding and capacity to adapt the lesson to these variables.

Some of the basic human needs to be put into consideration while developing a curriculum include:
i. the need for love, belonging, affection and security;
ii. the need for new-experiences;
iii. the need for responsibility;
iv. the need for praise cognition;
v. the need for achievement; and
vi. the need for self-actualization.

If what is developed as the school curriculum can be developed in take into account and help to resolve the emotional needs of children who will be final recipients of what was developed the school will become an emotional secure environment.

(Repeated Question 2012, No. 5.)
Note: Choose the demonstration method on 2013, No. 2 to complete the five (5) teaching methodologies in educational practice.

5(a) Different components of a curriculum are discussed below:

1. The Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives
Instructional objectives are the specific and immediate outcomes of particular teaching-learning situation. In curriculum development they take farm in a listing of statements describing the intended, learning for students. Instruction objectives are known to serve three purposes in curriculum development:
i. They clarify for teacher and learner what is to be accomplished.
ii. They serve as a guide for design and selection of meaningful content
iii. They provide guidance for measuring learner's progress.

The three domains of knowledge cognitive, affective and psychomotor, should be considered when selecting objectives.

2. Content
The content component of teaching-learning situations refers to the important facts, principles, concepts and understanding associated with the predetermined objectives. This part of curriculum raises the question, "what content will the teachers and learners need to consider in order to accomplish the instructional objectives?"

3. Organization of Learning Experiences
In structuring learning experiences and content, consideration should be given to research findings in the theories of learning and child development and sound educational practices. The contents should be organized in such a way as to produce major charges in the learners in the direction of stated objectives.

4. Evaluation Procedures
Evaluation is the process of determining the nature and extent of those changes in learner's behavior after a programme of curriculum and instruction. It is the process of evaluation that teachers can know whether learning has taken place or not.

5(b) Characteristics/Features of a Good Curriculum are:
i. Purposeful Aims and Objectives;
ii. Functionality;
iii. Flexibility;
iv. Relevance; and
v. Evaluation.

i. Purposeful Aims and Objectives
The aims and objectives must be clearly and precisely stated bearing in mind the societal values and the needs of the child. In learner's age level of development needs and interests. The economic attainment, religion, philosophy, and norms of the people should also be put into consideration.

ii. Functionality
The curriculum planned must be workable, practicable and feasible. For a curriculum planned to be called functional, it must be stated in clear and understandable terms. Practicability is another criteria for judging the functionality of a curriculum. The curriculum should be able to succeed given the human and economic resources available. It should also be acceptable by the people in a given society. it should strike a balance between theory and practice. Issues in a curriculum should be attainable.

iii. Flexibility
The curriculum must be capable of adapting to the needs of the changing learner and the society. Since education is not static, it should change with the society. It must be flexible and be able to create and avenue for growth and development to attain the predetermined objectives. It should be sufficiently flexible to enhance its adaptation to the changing condition and needs of the people.

iv. Relevance
The curriculum should emphasize those aspects that will be of benefit to the learner and the society. The curriculum should assist in helping to ease contact between the learner and his studies, socialize him and facilitate the transfer of knowledge and developmental skills to the entire populace.

v. Evaluation
The curriculum should be subjected to evaluation to ensure that there is progress and that such a progress is in the desired direction. Evaluation as a characteristic could facilitate learning and teaching. It could produce records appropriate to the purpose for which records are essential and provide feedback for curriculum planners and teachers.

5(c) Three Functions of a Good Curriculum according to Onwuka, Ugo (1996) are:

i. It determines educational direction including the decision of the type of society people want to live and serve in.

ii. It determines the principles and procedure which will help educators in selecting and arranging instructional programmes.

iii. It concerns itself with the application of the chosen principles.

It determines educational direction including the decision of the type of society people want to live and serve in. Curriculum as a course serve of study embraces the total spectrums of content, resources, materials and method of teaching through which the purposes of education are achieved. Education is expected to preserve and reform society to the extent that it be a congenial place for individual members to live and work happily in. it is supposed to familiarize members with the physical features of the society together with its cultural patters and practices as well as the effect of these on the individual's behaviour and competence.

ii. It determines the principles and procedure which will help educators in selecting and arranging instructional programmes. Curriculum sets the principles and procedure which help educators in selecting and stating the aims and objectives. Considerations are given to the leaner's age level of development needs and interests, the economic attainment, religion, philosophy and norms of the people.

iii. It concerns itself with the application of the chosen principles. The chosen principles are applied to accomplish their aims and objectives in order to facilitate learning and teaching.

Advantages of Brainstorming Method of Teaching:
i. It is stimulating and provides a varied instruction approach.
ii. It is highly motivating.
iii. Increases task focus.
iv. Promotes spontaneity and creativity.
v. Brainstorming is efficient and productive.
vi. Involves participants in the ownership of ideas.
vii. Provides a permanent record and aids in developing solutions to problems.

i. It is Stimulating and Provides a Varied Instruction Approach
Brainstorming teaching method generates enthusiasm and eagerness among the students to join in by its open invitation to participate and its rapid, free-wheeling approach.

ii. It is Highly Motivating:
Students who usually allow their verbal, articulate classmates to dominate question and answer periods get the urge to participate. They are not "put down" or degraded for "wrong answers" and feel a real sense of contribution as their suggestions are noted on project sheets. On the other hand, those who dominate traditional classroom situations are also stimulated to get their ideas out and on the record.

iii. Increases Task Focus:
The brainstorming group is kept on target with very little pressure from the group leader because of the structure and ground rules. Editorializing, personal commentary, rejoinders, eloquent speeches, and the other destructive activities of committee are eliminated in this process.

iv. Promotes Spontaneity and Creativity:
The method provides an exercise in critical evaluation for pupils and the teacher as well makes for active participation of students, stimulates them to think individually and to learn to express themselves freely.

v. Brainstorming is Efficient and Productive:
It makes students understand that there is no single "right answer" to all questions, but that various possible answers should be explored and considered with a view of finding the best or fullest solution.

vi. Involves Participants in the Ownership of Ideas:
In this method, the teacher draws upon experience and knowledge of the learners instead of leaving them to rely entirely upon his. i.e. the teacher acts as a leader and directs or redirects ideas and information produced by them.

vii. Provides a Permanent Record and Aids in Developing Solutions to Problems:
The results of the sessions can easily be reproduced or reused to design alternate procedures and programmes for solving problems or meeting objectives. The production of the group takes on value as a permanent evaluation record and as testimony to individual and group effort.

DISADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING METHOD OF TEACHING

i. It is Time Consuming
The main disadvantage of this method is that it is time consuming. In a group, participants have to listen to others and may spend time repeating their ideas until they get sufficient attention. It must be well organized to avoid waste of time and going off in an unexpected direction.

ii. Cordial Relationship Must be Involves Between the Teacher and His Students
The teacher's relationship with the students must be cordial to enhance their freedom to speak out, yet respect his control. As the name goes, the teacher must encourage as many as possible to participate in brainstorming but not allow one or two to dominate the sessions.

iii. It Enhances the Intimidation of Other Participants
Participants with the ability to express their ideas faster and more effective gain the general attention of the group. Some form of leadership can be formed in this way within the group, which might make other participants feel intimidated.

iv. It Requires Complex/Difficult Procedure
Going through the protocol, processing and ordering the ideas can become a complex procedure. This also depends on the number and order of the generated ideas. Advising participants to let others speak without making them feel offended or intimidated can be difficult.

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YEAR: 2010 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 105)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Differentiate between the following concepts:
i. Measurement;
ii. Assessment; and
iii. Evaluation.
b. State at least five (5) purposes of evaluation in education.

2. a. Identify and discuss any five (5) factors to be considered for successful evaluation
b. State and explain the purpose of assessment
c. Outline and explain the characteristics of continuous assessment.

3. a. Distinguish between test validity and test reliability
b. Itemize any five (5) types of tests by their aims and objectives

4. a. Distinguish between diagnostic test and predictive test.
b. Highlight any five (5) characteristics of a good test.

5. a. Discuss the characteristics of a good test
b. State and discuss at least four (4) types of validity that can be observed in a test.

6. Fully explain any five (5) factors that can affect the outcomes of a test in the classroom.

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1(a)
i. Measurement is a process of carrying out actual measurement in order to assign a quantitative meaning to a quality. For example the determination of the length of a chalkboard is achieved through measurement which must be done physically.

Thus, measurement is a process of assigning numerals to objects, quantities or events in other to give qualitative meaning to such qualities. Measurement stops at ascribing the quantity but not making value judgment on the child's performance.

ii. Assessment is a fact finding activity that describes conditions that exists at a particular time. It often involves measurement to gather data. However, it is the domain of assessment to organize the measurement data into interpretable forms on a number of variables.

Assessment in educational setting may describe the progress students have made towards a given educational goal at a point in time. However, it is not concerned with the explanation of the underlying reasons and does not proffer recommendations for action. Although, there may be some implied judgment as to the satisfactoriness or otherwise of the situation. In the classroom, assessment refers to all the processes and products which are used to describe the nature and the extent of pupil's learning.

iii. While Evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgment to assessment. It is concerned with the application of its finding and implies some judgement of the effectiveness, social utility or desirability of a product, process or progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon objectives or values. Evaluation often includes recommendations for constructive action. Hence, evaluation is a qualitative measure of the prevailing situation. It calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability or goodness of the programme.

1(b) Educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following purposes:
i. To determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students' behavioural output;
ii. To make reliable decisions about educational planning;
iii. To ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in the programme;
iv. To identify students' growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills, attitude and societal values;
v. To help teacher determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning materials;
vi. To help motivate students to want to learn more as they discover their progress or lack of progress in given tasks;
vii. To encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits;
viii. To provide educational administrators with adequate information about teachers' effectiveness and school need;
ix. To acquaint parents or guardians with their children's performances;
x. To identify problems that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.

2(a) Factors to be considered for successful evaluation include:
i. Sampling Technique;
ii. Evaluation must be well organized;
iii. Objectivity of the instrument;
iv. Teachers must have been adequately prepared; and
v. Measurement of students' performances, the content and the techniques used.

i. Sampling Technique
For a successful evaluation to be considered an appropriate sampling procedure must be adopted. Inappropriate sampling techniques will lead to ineffectiveness of the evaluation.

ii. Evaluation Must be Well Organized
Evaluation itself must be well organized in terms of
- Treatment;
- Conducive atmosphere;
- Intended and un-intended outcomes and their implications considered.

iii. Objectivity of the Instrument
This involves any of the following:
- Feasibility of the investigation;
- Resolution of ethical issues;
- Reliability of the test (accuracy of date in terms of stability, repeatability and precision).

iv. Teachers Must have Been Adequately Prepared
They must be qualified to teach the subject allotted to them effectively.

v. Measurement of Students' Performances, the Content and the Techniques Used.
It must be ensure that the disparity in students' performances are related to the content of the test rather than to the technique used in administering the instrument.

2(b) The purpose of Assessment is classified into three, namely:
i. Classroom functions;
ii. Guidance functions; and
iii. Administrative Functions.

i. Classroom Functions
This includes:
1. Determination of level of achievement;
2. Effectiveness of the teacher, teaching method, learning situation and instructional materials;
3. Motivating the child by showing him his progress, i.e. success breeds success; and
4. It can be used to predict students' performance in novel situations.

ii. Guidance Functions
Assessment procedure can give the teacher diagnostic data about individual pupils in his class. These will show the pupils' strength, weaknesses and interests. It can also help to decide on which method to use or what remedial activities that are necessary. Parents and pupils can also be rightly guided in terms of career choice.

iii. Administrative Functions
1. Assessing can serve as communication of information when data collected are used in reports to parents.
2. It could form the basis upon which streaming, grading, selection and placement are based.
3. Making appropriate decisions and recommendations on curricula packages and curricula activities.

2c. Characteristic of Continuous Assessment Tests

i. In most cases, continuous assessment tests are periodical, systematic, and well-planned. Continuous assessment is said to systematic because it has a definitive programme of assessment. They should not be tests organized in a haphazard manner.

ii. Continuous Assessment test can be in any form. They may be oral, written, practical, announced, or unannounced, multiple choice objectives, essay, or subjective etc.

iii. Continuous Assessment tests are often based on what has been learnt within a particular period. Thus, there should be a series of tests.

iv. In Nigerian educational system, continuous assessment tests are part of the scores used to compute the overall performance of students. In most cases, they are 40% of the final score. The final examination often carries 60%.

v. Continuous Assessment tests are designed and produced by the classroom teacher. Some continuous assessment tests are centrally organized for a collection of schools or for a particular state.

vi. All continuous assessment tests should meet the criteria stated for a good test: Validity, reliability, variety of tests items and procedure, etc.

vii. Continuous assessment tests are comprehensive in nature. A variety of instruments or assessment procedures are used in ascertaining the performance of the pupils. Such instruments include tests, examinations, assignments, projects, observations, questionnaires, interviews, socio-metric techniques etc. In so far as continuous assessment looks at the total development of the pupil, it is said to be comprehensive. The cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours and domains are all considered and assessed.

3(a) Test validity means that a test measures what it is supposed to measure or test is suitable for the purposes for which it is intended. For example, if someone who is two-hundred pound steps on a scale five times and gets readings of two-hundred each time, then the measurement is valid. But if the scale consistently reads one-hundred and fifty, then it is reliable, but not valid.

While reliability of a test means measuring what it purports to measure consistently. In other words, reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. For e.g, if candidate get similar scores on parallel form of tests, this suggests that the test is reliable. Reliability is a prerequisite for measuring validity.

3(b) Types of tests by their aims and objectives are:
i. Placement Tests: for placing students at a particular level, school, or college.
ii. Achievement Tests: For measuring the achievement of a candidate in a particular course either during or at the end of the course.
iii. Aptitude Tests: Which are designed to determine the aptitude of a student for a particular task course, programme, job, etc.
iv. Diagnostic Tests: For determining the problems of a students in a particular area, task course, or programme diagnostic tests also bring out areas of difficulty of a student for the purposes of remediation.
v. Predictive Tests: This is designed to be able to predict the learning outcomes of the candidate. The test is able to predict that if the candidate is able to pass a particular test, he will be able to carry out a particular task, skill, course, action or programme.

1. A research project report comprises three major basic components which are:
i. The Preliminary section
ii. The Main Body
iii. The Appendix

The Preliminary Section
i. The Title Page
ii. Certification page
iii. Acknowledgement
iv. Table of Contents
v. List of Tables
vi. List of Figures
vii. List of Appendices
viii. The Abstract

Title page
Here information on the project, the programme (degree, diploma or certificate), the department and the University/Institution to which the report is being presented, the particulars of the student or the researcher submitting the project, the month and year the project is submitted.

Certification page
This is where the supervisor and head of department will append their signatures for approval of the report.

The Acknowledgment
This is used to show gratitude and indebtedness to individuals, institutions, or organizations for their contributions towards the success of the project.

The Table of Contents
This contains chapter, parts of the report and the pages where they appear. Only the first pages are indicated.

List of Tables and Figures
Follows the table of contents.

The List of Appendices
This is the last part of a research project report. Materials which are related to the report and which can be referred to for greater detail but which are unsuitable for inclusion into the main body report are usually placed in the appendix. Such materials are the instrument used for data collection, and data such as a list of school used for the study, letters of introduction etc. (Koleoso, 1999).

The Abstract
This is a short description of the work. It gives an ideal of and purpose of the work, brief description of the methodology and the major findings of the study. It usually consists of about 150 words.

The main body of the report is divided into four chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction
i. Background of the Study;
ii. Statement of the Problem;
iii. Purpose of the Study;
iv. Research Question and/or Hypothesis;
v. Scope and Delimitations of the Study;
vi. Definition of operational terms.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature
This treats the review of related literature.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter comprises the following sub-sections:
i. Research Design
ii. Area of Study
iii. Population
iv. Sample and sampling Procedure
v. Instrument for Data Collection
vi. Validation of the Instrument
vii. Reliability of the Instrument
viii. Method of Data Analysis
ix. Result and Discussion

Chapter 4: Summary, Conclusion, Implications and Recommendation
i. Summary
ii. Conclusion
iii. Implications of the Findings
iv. Recommendations arising from the Study
v. Limitations of the Study
vi. Suggestions for Further Studies

Chapter 5: References
i. References
ii. Appendix

The Appendix
This is the last part of a research project report. Materials which are related to the report and which can be referred to for greater details but which are unsuitable for inclusion into the main body report are usually placed in the appendix. Such materials are the instrument used for data collections, raw data such as a list of school used for the study, letters of introduction, etc. (Koleoso, 1999).

QUESTION 2.
Identify five (5) basic methods of research and briefly discuss any three (3).

i. Historical
ii. Survey
iii. Experimental
iv. Applied Research
v. Action Research

3(a) (Repeated Question 2012; No. 4(a))

3(b) Describe any 5 (five) useful steps for effective research methodology or procedure.

i. Research Design
The research design is the plan, structure and strategy operated by the researcher in order that the research question can be answered.
The hypothesized relationships can be observed only through a thorough and effective control of all sources of variance in the study i.e. extraneous variance, systematic variance, and error variance.

ii. Sample/Subject
You have to define the population from which you plan to select the sample or subjects of your study. Variable often included in this consideration are: age, grade level, socio economic status, gender, race, IQ, mental age, academic achievement level etc.

You should also specify the number of subjects to be selected from the population and how they will be selected. Random selection is advised but where this is not possible the reasons for using other methods must be stated.

iii. Instrumentation
Researchers often strive to establish relationships between various constructs that are usually not directly measurable or observable. An indicator of such a construct will have to be develop, or adopted. Such indicators show what data to be gathered and hence how it will be gathered.

The researcher will therefore describe the instrument in detail. It should be stated clearly whether the instrument is developed, adopted or adapted. In either case, the source and modifications made must be explained. The sources must be acknowledged. If developed, the process of the development must be given.

iv. Data Collection
The data must be collected carefully to ensure its quality. Bias and error must be avoided. Moreover, there is the need to plan before data collection is commenced. How the data will be organized and presented should have been determined.

The use of tables, figures and charts are essential in organizing and summarizing data.

v. Data Analysis
The type of design used for the study is a pointer to the statistics techniques that could be used. This also depend on the type of hypothesis and the type of data (nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio).

(Repeated Question of 2011, N0. 6(a))

Types of educational research are as follows:
i. Historical
ii. Survey
iii. Experimental
iv. Applied Research
v. Action Research

Historical Type
Research in this case is based on oral evidence: (Monly, 1978) records such as dairies, case history, autobiography, logbooks etc. Books, journals, magazines, etc are also useful documents. The purpose of historical research is to obtain a better understanding of the present through the evaluation of the past and intelligent prediction of the future. An historical research aids in avoiding past errors and predicting the future and also refreshes ones memory on what is known and unfolds what is not known. There are two main sources of collecting historical data. There are primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are relics and other things that have direct physical relationships e.g. observations and participation. A secondary source deals with bibliographies, references, materials and documents recorded by someone else. These are less reliable than the primary sources.

Survey type
Survey type of research can also be called a descriptive research, this type of research is based on information gathered through questionnaires, interview (oral, written, structured, constructed, etc.), inventories, rating scales, self-report, and observations. Descriptive research is used to find the meaning and obtain an understanding of the present condition. The results obtained through this procedure can be statistically analyzed.

Experimental (Empirical) Type
Experimental type of research involves conducting experiments for research process. The researcher will find out the effect of manipulating some variables by providing various treatments and later compared with an untreated group called control group. The results obtained through this procedure are usually statistically analyzed. Experimental research is a precise research technique designed to solve specific educational problems. It is perhaps the most reliable type of research that determines situations. In conducting experimental research, three types of variables are usually taken into consideration. They are dependable, independent, and intervening variables.

Applied Research
Applied research deals essentially with conducting research in an attempt to provide solutions. Under applied research, we have Action Research, Investigative Research and Evaluation Research.

Action Research
This type is different from other types of research because of its usefulness. Action research is used by classroom teachers, office administrators, and policy makers. The research attempts to develop new skills, new methods, and approaches and tries to solve problems with direct application to the classroom situation. (Adewumi, 1988).

6. Educational research is a very vital tool for administrators, teachers and academicians in the discharge of their duties. It provides data/information which can be used for solving educational problems as well as improving the educational process. Specifically the importance of educational research may be summarized as follows:

i. Educational research is usually aimed at solving an educational problem. Consequently participation in educational research does not only give students training in problem solving but also an insight into problems existing in education and how to solve them.

ii. Students participation in educational research prepares them for employment as research worker in educational establishment.

iii. Educational research provides data which is used by authorities for making decisions in education.

iv. Every good research including educational research contributes to knowledge. Educational research thus gives rise to increase in knowledge in the area of education.

v. Through research in education new instruments and methods have been developed for teaching, measurement and evaluation in education.

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YEAR: 2010 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (PDE 109)
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TIME: 2HRS

INSTRUCTIONS:
This is a two (2) credit course. Answer any 4 questions. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Explain in details the meaning of sociology of education and the concept of perspective.

2. (a) Explain the concept "social stratification" and describe the THREE (3) separate elements of stratification.
(b) Discuss the advantages of children from high socio economic backgrounds in education.

3. Describe how the functionalist views would influence the interpretation of the following key elements of schooling:
(i) Curriculum;
(ii) Role of teachers and learners;
(iii) Interpersonal relations.

4. Identify and describe the features of bureaucracy that are present in the school system.

5. (a) Identify, with notes, the feminist theory as described by Ritzer.
(b) What are the major applications of the Marxian theory to educational study?

6. Discuss the relationship between education and the family.

1. Sociology of education is defined as a study of the relations between education and society. It is an analysis of the sociological processes involved in an educational institution.

Ottaway (1962), opined that it is a social study and in so far as its method is scientific, it is a branch of social science. It is concerned with educational aims, methods, institutions, administration and curricula in relation to the economic, political, religious, social and cultural forces of the society in which they function.

As far as the education of the individual is concerned, sociology of education focuses on the influence of social life and social relationships on the development of personality.

Thus, sociology of education emphasizes sociological aspects of educational phenomena and institutions. The problems encountered are regarded as essentially problems of sociology and not problems of educational practice.

This view of sociology of education is different from the concept of educational sociology which is seen as the application of general principles and findings of sociology to the administration and or processes of education.

This approach attempts to apply principles of sociology to the institutions of education as a separate societal unit. The problems of educational sociology are derived from the field of education.

The content of the sociology of education therefore included such general concept as the society itself, accommodation, assimilation, cultural lag, sub culture, states etc. Such other considerations as the effect of the polity and economy on education, the social forces and determinants that effect educational and cultural changes, the social institutions involved in the educational process – the family, the school and the Church, various problems of role structure and role analysis in relation to the total social system and the micro-society of the school; the school viewed as a formal organization, involving such problems as authority, selection, the organization of learning and streaming; the relationship between social class, culture and language, and between education and occupation, and problems of democratization and elitism, and fall within the purview of sociology of education.

The position that each group of thinkers adopted from which they view society determined how they interpreted it and what they regarded as the most important aspects of social life.

This position from which the thinkers approached the study of social life is what is called "PERSPECTIVE".

A perspective can thus be defined, as Meiglian (1986) did, as "a frame of reference, a series of working rules by which a person is able to make sense of complex and puzzling phenomena (P.227). As Meighan further explained, for the sociologist, the phenomenon referred to in this definition is social life, and in taking a particular position towards its study, he or she makes a set of assumptions upon which analysis can be based and which, typically include ideas about the nature of human beings, of society and of the interaction between the individual and society.

2 (a) Social stratification means the way the society is divided into layers or social strata. Certain groups of people are socially superior to others. Moreover, it means social inequalities of wealth, power and prestige that result from social rank. Social stratification can also be explained in terms of the division of a population into unequal layers or strata based on income, wealth, gender, ethnicity, power, status, age or religion.

According to Marx Weber (1947), stratification has three (3) separate elements which are as follows:

(i) Class: This refers to a person's location in a society's economic system resulting in differences in the nature of work, income and wealth. Class position in society is a strong determinant of what one's life style is. The concept of class is also used to differentiate the population on grounds of economic considerations such as inequality in terms of wealth or income.

(ii). Status: This refers to a person's relationship to established social position in society that vary in terms of prestige. Status also concerns the respect and differences given to individuals and groups. It can be achieved and may also be linked to occupations. However, other kinds of status are:
(a). Family background status;
(b). Ascribed Status:- old people have higher status than young ones, males have higher respect than females;
(c). Religious leaders are accorded high status even if they are poor;
(d). Occupation e.g. University Professors and Dons have high status while labourers have not;

(iii). Power: This means one's relationship to governmental and other political institutions, which will affect other people. For example, the Headmaster has political power both in school and outside the school. The teachers and pupils are under him and he can take decisions that affect their future.

Another role of the Headmaster is the outside role, which is in the community.

2(b) The advantages of children from high socio-economic backgrounds in education are:

(i) As a result of the financial position of parents under this class, they can afford to buy facilities and materials for their children. Thus, learning is made easy and effective.

(ii) Early Enrolment in School: Parents with higher socio-economic status give their children an early start in education by enrolling them in nursery schools. This gives such children an edge over those who are not privileged to have an early start as it helps the children to be familiar with the school and the environment as well as its academic aspects like the learning of certain concepts such as 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10; etc. And A,B,C,D to Z, as well as skills such as how to hold pen, how to draw, paint and write.

(iii) Children from high socio-economic backgrounds in education are more likely to attend the most prestigious schools because their parents have the strength to bear the cost of qualitative private education. Such schools are usually known for:
- having adequate teaching and learning facilities;
- having qualified teaching staff;
- have a high sense of commitment to work;
- have good teaching and learning environment;
- known to have high educational performance leading to opportunity for university or high education which at the end of the day provides good occupational opportunities and high income living.

(iv) Children from such high socio-economy backgrounds are more likely to be encouraged and motivated. Furthermore, to having an early start in education, they are also known to enjoy other privileges at home such as the following:
- going to school early because they have no other duty than to bath and prepare for school;
- parents check their children's books after school hours;
- parents praise them for hardworking performance;
- parents employ extra-lesson teachers for their children.

1(a) Repeated Question (2013, No. 3(a)).

1(b) Features of Continuous Assessment

i. Continuous Assessment tests are periodical, systematic, and well-planned. They should not be tests organized in a haphazard manner. Continuous assessment is said to be systematic because it has a definitive programme of assessment. Thus it has an operational plan which indicates or specifies what measurements are to be made of the students' performance, the time intervals when such measurement are to be made, the results to be recorded and the specific nature of the instruments or strategies to be adopted for the measurement. Usually, these are worked out in advance. It means then that any school involved in Continuous Assessment programme must have to adopt a definite programme that should be made known to all participants especially students, teachers and even the ministry of education officials and parents who are directly involved.

ii. Continuous assessment tests are often based on what has been learnt within a particular period. Thus, they should be a series of tests.

A variety of instruments or assessment procedures are used in ascertaining the performance of the pupils. Such instruments include tests/examinations, assignments, projects, observations, questionnaires, interviews, sociometric techniques, etc. In so far as continuous assessment looks at the total development of the pupil, it is said to be comprehensive. The cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours and domains are all the evaluation system before the introduction of continuous assessment system focused mainly on the cognitive domain of behavior. Psychomotor and affective domains of behavior were excluded.

iii. All continuous assessment tests should meet the criteria for a good test such as validity, reliability, variety of tests and procedure, etc. It should measure what it is supposed to measure or be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended. Continuous assessment should measure what it purports to measure consistently. One can be confident that someone will get more or less the same score on different occasions or when it is used by different people.

Continuous assessment must be capable of accurate measurement of the academic ability of the learner: it must give a true picture of the learner. It should point out clearly areas that are learnt and areas not learnt.

iv. Continuous assessment tests can be in any form. They may be oral, written, practical, announced, or unannounced, multiple choice objective, essay or subjective, etc. It should also include variety of tasks within each test: writing, reading, speaking, listening, re-writing, transcoding, solving, organizing and presenting extended information, interpreting, blank filling, matching, extracting, points, distinguishing, identifying, constructing, producing, designing, etc. In most cases, both the tasks and the materials to be used on the tests should be real to the life situation of what the learner is being trained for.

v. All continuous assessment tests are Guidance Oriented in nature. Every information collected on the students during the process of continuous Assessment is made use of for further development of the students. A major reason why students are assessed within a course of study rather than waiting until the end of the school term or school year or even end of the programme, is to obtain information on the level of the pupil's achievement and then use such information, if need be, to assist the pupil's in good time before it becomes too late. One of the main values of assessment in education is that it can assist to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses in pupils performances, the teachers instructional strategies and the educational programme. The information obtained can be utilized as a sound basis for encouraging the pupils' efforts, for remediation of students' learning problems and necessary improvement of strategies and modalities of instruction.

(Repeated Question, 2(a), 2(b) and 2(c) on 2010 No. 5(b)).
(Question 2(d) and 2(e) on 2011, No. 5(b)).

3(a)
(Repeated question (see question and answer 2012, No. 1(a)).

3(b)

Formative Evaluation | Summative Evaluation
i. The purpose of formative evaluation is to find out whether after a learning experience, students are able to do what they were previously unable to do | Summative evaluation often attempts to determine the extent the broad objectives of a programme have been achieved (i.e NECO or WAEC) GRADE Two, NABTEB, etc.
ii. It does not carry threat with it in that the students have adequate knowledge of the evaluator and failure has no far reaching effect on the students | It is judgemental in nature and often carries threat with it in that the students may have no knowledge of the evaluator and failure has a far reaching effect on the students.
iii. Formative evaluation is less objective than summative evaluation | It is more objective than formative evaluation
iv. It summarizes the students' development at a particular time | Refers to the assessment of students where the focus is on the outcome of a programme.
v. Formative evaluation is qualitative in nature, | While summative evaluation is quantitative in nature.
vi. It is a continuous process | It is an event that takes place at the end of an instructional unit.
vii. The aim of formative evaluation is to improve upon what has been learnt | Whereas the aim of summative evolution is to prove the amount of learning that has taken place.

Note: Formative evaluation is typically contrasted with summative evaluation. The former supports teachers and students in decision-making during educational and learning processes, while the latter occurs at the end of a learning unit and determines if the content being taught was retained. (Ainsworth, p. 23 (2006)).

Furthermore, formative evaluation including diagnostic testing is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures employed by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment. It typically involves qualitative feedback (rather than scores) for both student and teacher that focuses on the details of content and performances. It is commonly contrasted with summative evaluation, which seeks to monitor educational outcomes, often for purposes of external accountability.

The correction formula is given by
No of questions marked right (R) - [No. of questions marked wrong (W) / (No of options per item (N) - 1)]

Where R = 40
W = 10
N = 5 (assuming the options per item is 5)

Applying the formula
= 40 - 10/(5-1)
= 40 - 10/4
= 40 - 2.5
= 37.5 ≈ 38 out of 50. Which is the actual score after correction

Five (5) specific purposes tests are:
i. Diagnostics Tests;
ii. Continuous Assessment Tests;
iii. Standardized Tests;
iv. Placement Tests; and
v. Predictive Tests.

i. Diagnostic Tests
These tests are used for determining the problems of a student in particular area, task, course or programme. Diagnostic tests also bring out areas of difficulty of a student for the purpose of remediation. Diagnostic tests are used to diagnose how much the students know and what they know. They can help a teacher know what needs to be reviewed or reinforced in class. They also enable the student to identify areas of weakness.

ii. Continuous Assessment Tests
Continuous assessment is a systematic and objective process of determining the extent of a students' performances and all the expected changes in his behavior from the day he/she enters into a course of study in a continuous and progressive manner to the end of such a course and a judicious accumulation of all pieces of information derived from this purpose, with a view of using them to guide and shape the student in his/her learning from time to time and to serve as bases for important decision about the student.

Continuous assessment tests are designed to measure the progress of students in a continuous manner. Such tests are taken intermittently and students' progress measured regularly. The cumulative scores of students in continuous assessment often form part of the overall assessment of the students in the course or subject.

iii. Standardized Tests
These are tests that have been tried out with large groups of individuals, whose scores provide standard norms or reference points for interpreting any scores that anybody who writes the tests has attained. Standardized tests are to be administered in a standard manner under uniform positions. They are tested and re-tested and have been proved to produce valid or reliable scores. Some examples of standardized tests include: Achievement tests, placement tests, aptitude tests, etc.

iv. Placement Tests
Placement tests are used to place students/candidates into a particular class, school, level or employment. The assumption here is that any individual who performs creditably well at a level can be moved to another level after testing. Thus, we use placement tests to place a pupil into primary two, after he/she has passed the test set for primary one, and so on.

v. Predictive Tests
They are designed to be able to predict the learning outcomes of the candidate. A predictive test is able to predict or forecast that if the candidate is able to pass a particular test, he/she will be able to carry out a particular task, skill, course, action, or programme. For example, one can assume that if Aliyu can pass UTME, he will be able to go to level 100 of a university and study engineering. This may not always be the case, though. There are other factors that can make a student do well other than high performance in a test.

6(i). Mean, X̄ = Sum of all scores / Number of scores

Mean = (20 + 35 + 40 + 50 + 65) / 5
Mean = 210 / 5
X̄ = 42

ii. Mean deviation = Σ|X - X̄| / N

X | X - X̄ | |X - X̄| | |X - X̄|²
20 | -22 | 22 | 484
35 | -7 | 7 | 49
40 | -2 | 2 | 4
50 | 8 | 8 | 64
65 | 23 | 23 | 529
| 62 | 1,130

Mean Deviation = 62/5 = 12.4

iii. Standard deviation = √(Σ|X - X̄|² / N)
= √(1,130 / 5)
= √226
Standard deviation = 15.03329 ≈ 15.03

================================================================
YEAR: 2010 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
(PDE 106)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.
================================================================

1. Enumerate and explain the principles of learning.

2. a. Define learning and explain its basic characteristics
b. Describe how maturity is related to learning.

3. Enumerate and explain any five factors affecting learning

4. List and discuss any five factors which have been identified as enhancing students ability to store and retrieve information already learned.

5. Discuss the THREE famous laws of Thorndike and describe their educational implications to teachers.

1. The following are the principles of learning:
i. Experience;
ii. Relevance;
iii. Feedback;
iv. Motivation;
v. Reinforcement.

i. Experience
In as much as learning should be organized and be within the realm of the learner's capability. It must also be experience centred. Teachers and instructors must make use of teaching aids and materials that are within the experience of the learner so as to enhance the rate of assimilation and retention. Whenever a lesson is experience centred, the learner would tend to see its relevance. Meaningfulness can be further enhanced when vocabulary is drawn at first from the experience of the learner.

ii. Relevance
It is easier to learn and to remember something if it is related to what is familiar and if it has meaning or importance to the life of the learner. Thus, teachers would facilitate classroom learning when the content of the lesson is related to what is significant or motivating to the learner.

iii. Feedback
Theories of learning have for long emphasized the importance of knowledge of result or feedback as a factor of aiding learning. Thorndike had emphasized this point when he modified his three famous laws. Evaluation of progress toward goals is very important. Practice works only if the learner sees the result of his practice.

Feedback can be provided in cognitive learning by employing short, informal quizzes and then asking the learner to correct his own work. Knowledge of result in psychomotor learning is easier to provide.

iv. Motivation
This refers to what energizes a person to behave in a particular way. It is a complex concept, which deals with people's wants, needs, demands, and desires. Motivation is central in energizing an individual to seek to learn or remain attentive and active in the learning process. A motivated learner strives to put greater effort in the classroom so as to achieve his or her goals.

When a learner is motivated internally, it is said that the learner is intrinsically motivated. When it is external, it is said to be an extrinsic motivation. The usefulness of motivation can be summarized as follows:

1. Its use helps learners to pay attention in class;
2. It can lead to self-discovery and independent inquiry;
3. It stimulates learners to higher achievement;
4. It helps establish cordial relationship between teacher; and students especially when students find learning less boring and less confusing;
5. More learning outcomes are assured;
6. When students achieve through motivation, attendance at school becomes regular.

v. Reinforcement
Reinforcement implies the use of reward and punishment in teaching. Reward is found to be normally more effective in aiding learning. All the instrumental conditioning theories and even social learning theory have emphasized the significance of reinforcement. To encourage learning, psychologists, especially B.F. Skinner recommend that reward or positive reinforcement should be used minimally or just enough to ensure that the appropriate behavior will be repeated.

2(a) Learning has been defined by various psychologists amongst them are:

Hengenhann (1982) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.

According to Bugelski (1956), learning is the process of the formation relatively permanent neural circuits through the stimulation neous activity of the elements of the circuits-to-be, such activity is of the nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a manner as to facilitate the arousal of the entire circuit when a component element is aroused or activated.

Hilgard and Bower, (1975), defined learning as the change in a subject's behavior to a given situation brought about by his repeated experiences in that situation provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or temporary states of the subject (e.g fatigue, drugs, alcohol, etc).

Basic Characteristics of Learning

i. Learning Has To Change Behaviour
For learning to be said to have taken place, there must be the element of change in a subject's behavior overtly or covertly to a given situation brought about by his repeated experiences in that situation.

ii. The Change should be Relatively Permanent.
This change must not be momentary, it must be relatively permanent. It should be retained over some period of time. Change in behaviour as result of fatigue or other transitory conditions such as use of drugs or alcohol do not constitute learning.

iii. The Change should be as a Result of Experience
Another characteristic of learning is that the change in behavior must be based on exposure to the environment. Environment here refers to learning situations of any situation that allows one to gain some experience. Learning, therefore, involved a change in the behavior of the individual as a consequence of his or her experience. This can manifest in the way the individual thinks (cognitive), acts (Psychomotor) of feels (affective).

iv. Learning is an Internal Process
The change may be an increased capability in performance altered disposition in attitude, interest or value. It must be distinguishable from the kind of change that is attributed to growth, such as change in height or the development if muscles through exercise. Thus, learning is an internal process.

v. Learning Occurs under conditions of directed attention and deliberate effort.
Learning (the change) should be retained over some period of time due to experience. Hence, learning is accompanied with directed attention and deliberate effort. If a behavioural change can be shown to be the result of some factor other than experience then we do not consider it to be learning.

vi. Learning is Distinct from Biological Maturation and Imprinting
Maturation refers to the physiological development of a growing person. It is specifically used for qualitative changes in the organism which are not induced by learning. Imprinting which is a psychological concept is an instinctive reaction an organism displays that capitalizes on certain tendencies which appears whenever the time is ripe. Thus, learning, that exhibits itself as a change in behavior is distinct from biological maturation and imprinting.

2(b) Maturation refers to the psychological development if a growing person. Maturation is specifically used for qualitative changes in the organism which are not induced by learning. The relationship between maturity and learning is very close because learning takes place within a certain level of maturation.

Maturation, has been defined by Gleitman, H. (1996) as programmed growth process which is relatively unaffected by environmental condition. E.g. walking in humans. For training to yield effective results a defined level of maturation is required. For example, learning and training should start when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation which implies concept of readiness for an activity. Teachers and parents must be before the child's level of maturation otherwise it would be a waste of time and effort to expect a child to perform a task or learn materials he/she is not matured enough to undertake.

4. The factors are listed below:
i. Rehearsal;
ii. Organisation;
iii. Mnemonic devices;
iv. Attention;
v. Relearning.

i. Rehearsal
When the information received in the sensory region is selected for further processing. This involves repeating or reciting the skill or information in order to store it in long term memory. When material being learnt is not well rehearsed it cannot move from the short-term memory to the long-term memory. If material already well learnt is rehearsed for a very long time, forgetting will not set in.

ii. Organisation
If the information learned fits into an organized pattern, it may easily be remembered. When children are made to learn disjointed facts or unrelated materials, they easily get confused and be unable to organize it into the scheme they already have in their long-term memory. But when a learning material is well organized (or can be organized) and it is meaningful, understanding and therefore recall is enhanced.

iii. Mnemonic Devices
These are special phases of symbols used to group information. For TV may stand for television, or BBC for British Broadcasting Corporation etc. Mnemonic devices help in the learning of the unfamiliar information.

iv. Attention
This is the process of selecting vital information for further processing. Unless selective and proper attention is given to what is to be learned, learning is unlikely to be effective. Information will not be processed into the short-term or long-term memory if it is not attended to. It will disappear since it has not been processed at all.

v. Re-Learning
This is where a person is required to learn again information which was experience before. It is mainly for research purposes to determine whether relearning would take more or less time than learning for the first time.

(1). Five (5) processes in micro-teaching include:
(i) Modelling;
(ii) Planning teaching;
(iii) Teach-Record Stage;
(iv) Playback-critique stage (feedback);
(v) Re-Planning to Re-teach.

(i) Modelling:
Repeated Question (2010, No.4(i))

(ii) Planning Teaching:
Repeated Question (2010, No. 4(ii))

2(a) Repeated Question (2011. No. 1(a))
2(b) Repeated Question (2011, No. 1(b))

3(a) Brown, G. (1975) described Reinforcement as "any technique
which modifies or changes behaviour".

3(b) Four (4) Reinforcement Strategies include:
(i) Rewards, e.g. praise, pat on the back, etc.

(ii) Gestural or Non-verbal Reinforcement, for e.g. Facial
expression such a smile or bodily expression, etc.

(iii) Token Reinforcement, e.g, giving of sweets, award of
marks, writing good comments on books or test papers by
the teacher;

(iv) Activity Reinforcement, for example, the teacher uses an
activity or gives the pupils a task they prefer as a
reinforcement for work which has previously been done.

3(c) Negative Reinforcement refers to the process of increasing
probability of a desired response occurring by taking away
something from the learner. This skill is applied through the use of
negative rein-forcers like giving punishment, withholding of
rewards or application of corrective feedback.

Illustrative Examples of Use of Negative Reinforcement.
(i) If in the course of teaching a set of students, a particular student
disturbs by whistling and the teacher does not display any
reaction. After sometime, the teacher distributes pencils to other
members of the class for their co-operation during the lesson but
does not give to the defaulting student. He has applied a negative
reinforcer which is withholding of a reward;

(ii) If a teacher poses the question: What is the formular of oxygen? to
a student, and the student responds, O3. Then if the teacher reacts
by saying, 'that's not the correct formular, better think of another
formular" (or No, not quite, try again") we regard the teacher's
reaction or response as corrective feedback;

(iii) If question such as "what is the capital of Nigeria?" is directed to a
student and the student responds, "Ibadan", then if the teacher
reacts "Very poor of you", keep standing" then punishment has
been used as a means of negative reinforcement.

4(a) Classroom discipline is the highest order of classroom control. It
is self imposed by the pupil rather than imposed from outside by the
teacher. Classroom control contributes to the building up of discipline
in a school and in a pupil. Classroom discipline comes more from the
self will of the students due to the amount of control exercised by the
teacher on them. In most cases, the presence of or lack of discipline
stems from the amount of control the teacher exerts on his pupils.

Much as the classroom serves as a theatre stage for learning, the
prevailing control and discipline are strong determinants of successful
learning.

To Bickerstaffe (1972), pupils who are lacking in control and are
allowed to do as they please rarely acquire self-discipline.

4(b) Five (5) factors that aid class control and discipline are:
(i) Classroom arrangement and organization;
(ii) Teachers' own personality;
(iii) Through preparation of teacher's lesson;
(iv) Teacher's performance during teaching;
(v) The school societies are instruments of discipline.

(i) Classroom Arrangement And Organization
A teacher who organizes his class in such a way that he can get to any
part or any material without disturbing the peace of the class, will
sustain the control longer than a teacher who is unorganized. Equally,
the teacher who lays out the materials he needed for his lesson in

appropriate places and gets them without wasting time during the
lesson, stands a better chance of sustaining the class control.

(ii) Teachers' Personality
Teacher's personality in most cases affects classroom control and
discipline. Whether the students behave well in class or not is mostly
as a consequence of teacher's personality characteristics and manner
of relating and interacting with the students. A teacher who is
concerned with his students' welfare and shows it will gain the respect
of his students, thus reducing control problems. Some teachers are
very rigid and dominative, i.e always authoritative and locked in doing
things a certain way that they inadvertently establish a climate of
misbehaviour by insisting on their students obeying some rules which
may violate the conditions of growth.

Co-operation between the teacher and students, if introduced at the
onset helps to limit control problems. This can be done without the
teacher losing his authority and position as the classroom teacher.

(iii) Lesson Preparation and Flow
The most important aspect of classroom control is preparation of
lesson by the teacher. Being adequately prepared for his lesson helps
the teacher to establish classroom control from the beginning. The
teacher that knows the subject matter and is amply prepared on the
instructional strategies and materials to use in delivering his lesson will
enter the class with confidence, which automatically generates a good
atmosphere. The lesson will proceed smoothly and there will be no
awkward pauses during which control problems can develop, the
lesson will be interesting and worth listening to and the pupils will be
kept constructively occupied (Bickerstaffe, 1972).

There is nothing as humiliating and as destructive of classroom control
and discipline as a teacher who is seen to be suspect with regards to
his subject matter.

(iv) Teacher's Performance During Teaching
A teacher who is dull in presentation gives the pupils the opportunity to
wander in their minds. A teacher who knows the names of all his
pupils, who is brilliant and active in his presentation, who gives brisk
and clear instructions and who has consideration for his pupils will
have their co-operation and submission.

(v) The School Societies Are Instruments Of Discipline
The pupils and teachers should be encouraged to join them. There,
they can develop good relationships which will help in the class
discipline.

5(a) Nervousness of pupils in the classroom is a psychological and
physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive and
behavioural components. Nervousness in school-aged children affects
both their quality of life and their ability to benefit fully from their school
experiences.

5(b) Causes of Nervousness Among Pupils In The Classroom

(i) Withdrawal from Peer group;
(ii) Absenteeism from the classroom;
(iii) Decline in grades;
(iv) Frequent Somatic Complaints;
(v) Poor coping with the teacher's method of teaching.

5(c) Ways of overcoming the Nervousness of pupils in the class
room

(i) Teachers Encouragement
The teacher should not dominate the class with his talk. Making
his lessons practical or activity-based will be of great help in
involving the pupils. The teacher should always encourage
students to ask questions as lesson develop and ask for their
views at any particular topic or subject.

(ii) Working With A Group
When pupils are meant to work in a group in the classroom it
goes a long way to remove nervousness and fear among them.
Some pupils cannot do any assignment on their own unless they
work in group with their colleagues.

(iii) Teacher's Use Of Humour In The Classroom.
When the teacher shows good sense of humour and care for his
pupils, It helps a lot to reduce nervousness among them. The
pupils become less anxious and friendly to the teacher.

(iv) Kindness And Understanding
A teacher should always be friendly and helpful to his pupils.
Being aggressive does not help the situation as it will only create
nervousness among the pupils, thus making it difficult for him to
understand their problems. The teacher should always take
interest in his pupils' genuine personal problems and shows a lot
of understanding in assisting to solve them.

(v) Teaching Situation
The method of teaching selected by the teacher should be the
one that will accommodate all the pupils. The teacher should
make sure that all the pupils are carried along and that no one is
left behind.

6(a) Visual aids are those instructional materials that appeal to the
sense of sight which enhance teaching and learning processes.
Examples of visual aids include pictures, textbook, workbook,
chalkboard, charts, maps, etc.

6(b) Criteria for the selected of visual material includes:
(i) Visibility;
(ii) Relevance to lesson Objectives;
(iii) Attractiveness;
(iv) Simplicity;
(v) Easy usage;
(vi) Availability;
(vii) Class/ School Environment;
(viii) Durability.

(i) Visibility
Whenever a visual material is to be selected for use in teaching, an
important factor to be considered is the ease with which the pupils can
see the materials be they objects, model or specimens. For example, if
a diagram showing the parts of a leaf is used to illustrate the topic, it is
important for the diagram and the labelling to be as bold as possible.
This is necessary so that pupils sitting at the back of the class can see
without straining their eyes.

(ii) Relevance
Visual aids selected for use become useless if they are not relevant to
the topic to be taught. They are supposed to promote the lesson
objectives. Therefore, the relationship between the resources and
these objectives should always be the guiding principle in the selection
of material resources for teaching and learning.

(iii) Attractiveness
One of the roles of teaching aids or material resources is to stimulate
and sustain pupils interest in the lesson. Therefore, visual aids when
selected for use must be attractive and carefully arranged. A well
drawn and neatly labelled diagram is likely to be more attractive than a
mutilated one.

(iv) Simplicity
Any visual aids selected for use is supposed to convey a given
information which is relevant to the behavioural objectives for the
lesson. It should not contain other information at the same time as
there may be the tendency for pupils attention to be distracted.
Therefore, for the selected material to be helpful it should be simple
and not too complex. For example, if a teacher wants to teach the
parts of a feather, it would be more appropriate to use a single feather
rather than drawing a complete fowl. Otherwise, some pupils attention
would be taken by the other parts of the fowl.

(v) Easy Usage
Any resource material when selected must be easy to manipulate. It
becomes ridiculous and embarrassing if a teacher comes to the class
with an equipment which he cannot operate. Today, there are
numerous electronic media or resources which are being used to
improve teaching and learning. These include films and filmstrips,
projector, etc. Some of these demand little technical skill to manipulate.
The ease with which the teacher can use a given material resource
should always guide his selection.

(vi) Availability
One thing is to conceive of a very important and effective material
resources and another is for it to be readily available. Therefore, a
teacher should always consider the availability of the materials he
intends to select for use. Availability here includes locating the
materials and their prices. Those to be selected should be what the
school can afford. It is however more appropriate to make use of

simple and cheap materials so that the teacher can improvise some of
then when the school cannot afford them.

(vii) Classroom/School Environment
The classroom and school environment determines to a great extent
what materials are to be selected for use in teaching and learning. If
there is no electricity it is no use thinking of a television or projector. If
there is no darkroom, projector may not be thought of.

(viii) Durability
When materials are use to illustrate or demonstrate teaching, they are
supposed to be kept or preserved for sometimes. At times, pupils may
want to demonstrate the use of such materials at the end of the lesson.
In fact, the lesson period may be too short for the pupils to fully
appreciate the meaning of the materials.

As soon as the lesson ends, they try to pay more attention to the study
of the diagram. Therefore, the materials to be selected should be such
that is durable and capable of being preserved for a fairly long time.
Besides, other teachers may want to make use of the materials such
as maps, specimens, objects and equipment in their lesson.

YEAR: 2010 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING 1
(PDE 112)
TIME: 2HRS
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) This is a two (2) credit course.
(ii) Answer four (4) questions.
(iii) All questions carry equal marks.

1(a) Explain the following: (i) Physical development; (ii) Social
development; (iii) Cognitive development.
(b) Identify and explain the principles underlying human
development.

2(a) Explain the counselling intervention according to Eric Erikson
theory of psychosocial development;
(b) Describe what happens to the next stage of development which
was not fully resolved.

(3) Explain the developmental changes that take place in:
(i) the adolescence boys;
(ii) the adolescence girls.

4(a). What do you understand by "Transfer of learning"
(b) Enumerate and explain the types of transfer of learning.

5. Explain the concept "Counselling theory" and discuss the
significance of such theory to the counsellor.

6. Define "Psychological test and explain its uses.

1(a)i. Physical Development:
Physical development includes an understanding of who we are, our
growth. Growth here is the increase in various segments that are
forming in human body especially in size and weight.

(ii) Social Development:
Social development examines our changing abilities to relate to each
other.

(iii) Cognitive Development:
Cognitive Development describes changes in the way we think and
process information. Cognitive development include the way human
beings think, feel and act at different ages.

(b) Basic Principles Underlying Human Development Include:

(i) Maturation:
Except maturation occurs, certain actions or skills cannot take place in
individual. No matter how big a baby is, he or she must reach a certain
age before he or she is able to walk. Maturation, therefore, is the
increase in biological growth, thinking and feeling as a result of
environment and experience. Maturity is therefore the development of
those innate potentialities of a child in a sequential order. Activities
such as walking, crawling even talking largely depend on maturation.
No amount of encouragement or training that can make a child walk or
talk. There are some innates organs that must develop in order to
accomplish the task of walking. For example, when a child starts to talk
it is not good to force him to repeat some words, for it can affect the
child's development. The internal maturation process has to take place
for any given behaviour to be exhibited (Osarenren, 2001).

(ii). Learning:
This implies increased understanding of things and skills that results in
development. We learn the way to speak or the language of a place.
We learn how to dress and how to work and how to farm. We also
learn work and how to set the table before a meal. Learning is
therefore a permanent change in behaviour through experience.

(iii) Experience:
Experiences are set of understanding that result as individuals are
exposed to various activities or knowledge. They also lead to
development. It should also be understood that development follows
stages gradually. That is, it moves from one to the other. When
development is taking place in an individual it is from one stage to
another. People don't suddenly jump from one level to two levels
above except to the next level. People pass through each stage before
progressing into a later one. Secondly, it should also be noted that
there are individual differences in the rate of development. That is,
some people develop faster than others.

2(a) (i) Ages 0-1years:
A child needs to trust, thus parent need to be guided to give adequate
care and support for babies. An infant must not be neglected as shown
affection will develop a sense of trust. The foundation laid at this stage
matters because it is the determinant of subsequent behavioural
manifestation.

(ii) Ages 1-3years:
There is the need to be assisted to do things. They want to eat and
dress by themselves. The parents should be guided on how to
encourage their children when they try to do things themselves. For

instance, a child who tries to put on his shoes and couldn't should be
encouraged that he could do the task. Though he cries and expresses
inadequacy, efforts should be made to assist him and let him know that
he has ability to do it. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2000), overly
restrictive parents or those who punish minor accidents, such as
bedwetting or spills while eating can lead children to doubt their own
abilities. So parents should be guided on assisting their children along
these lines.

(iii) Ages 3-6:
Children are exploratory and inquisitive into so many things. They
make mistakes and fall into so many errors. Parents who punish or
criticize at the least mistake make the child to develop a sense of guilt
and lack of initiative thereby withdrawal begins. Towards the end of
this age, school begins so there is need for assistance for smooth
transition to school.

(iv) Ages 6-12:
The challenges at school sometimes overwhelm the child so
counselling service should be focused, directed at the child to assist
him to resolve the challenges which are too difficult so that the child
does not develop sense of inferiority.

(v) Ages 12-18:
The adolescent tries to answer, the question, "who am I?". So,
counselling effort should assist the youngster to resolve identity crises.

(vi) Young Adulthood:
Counselling intervention should be geared to resolving emotional
isolation and ability to love and to receive love freely.

(vii) Middle Adulthood:
At this stage, effort should be made to assist adults to be productive,
creative, committed to endeavour guiding the next generation.

(vii) Old Age:
Sense of integrity is required. Adults should accept responsibility for
the way they have lived and accept finality of death.

2(b) Erickson's theory of personal and social development has
undertaken a classification of the way in which emotional stages of
development are correlated with cognitive and social development. He
identified each stage of emotional development by the kind of
psychosocial crisis which is likely to occur and which, if handled
successfully, enable the individual to deal adequately with the kind of
crisis and problem that he will encounter at the next stage of
development. Each stage is thus described in terms of both the
favourable and unfavourable outcomes of dealing with the problems
that occur. (Lindgren, 1976). Meanwhile we have seen that Erickson
helps us to understand problems as we realized the diversities in
human social development.

3(i)&3(ii) (Repeated Question, 2014, NO.4)

4(a) Transfer of learning entails the understanding of an issue or a
thing and issuing that knowledge to solve future problems, that is,
problems the students had not encountered before.

Types of Transfer of Learning include:
(i) Negative Transfer; (ii) Positive Transfer;
(iii) General Transfer; (iv) Specific Transfer.

(i) Negative Transfer:
Negative transfer is a situation where previous knowledge affects the
performance in a particular event and hinders performance.

(ii) Positive Transfer:
This occurs when learning in one situation facilitates performance in
another.

(iii) General Transfer:
This implies the ability to use the experience gained in one and apply
them in a broad range of different situations.

(iv) Specific Transfer:
Specific transfer is the ability to use information in a particular setting
similar to the one in which the information is originally learned.

1. Imperfect as the Spartan education system was, it has some positive messages for us today. First, we need to learn that for excellence in athletics, there must be constant training and the earlier the youths are identified for such physically demanding roles, the better. For instance, in ancient Olympic competitions, Sparta usually defeated all other city-states, winning more than half of the laurels. These days, most families frown on letting youths fend for themselves whereas there may be a point in letting youths try it if only to realize that survival depends on it.

Furthermore, education in Sparta promoted the city state to a position of military prominence. It was a type of education that promoted discipline both of the body and of the mind. Citizens were brought up not to expect any life of opulence and of pleasure. In the process, the state grew in prominence and was able to dominate others. To this extent we can say that if any country wants to make progress and achieve greatness, it has to train youths to undergo and imbibe a life of discipline and indeed some degree of severity. As we can see, today, countries which have achieved military and industrial greatness are known to engage their youths in a sort of training that hardens the body and the mind; we need military greatness if our borders are to be dissension, but then, we need a calm atmosphere in which to settle down, think of development, inventions and manufacturing.

2. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 - February 17, 1827) was a Swiss reformer whose theories laid much of the foundation of modern elementary education. His contribution on educational development include:

i. Development/Establishment of Audio-Visual education;
ii. Establishment of an orphanage in 1774 to train young ones to become self-sufficient;
iii. He wrote many books where he put down his ideas;
iv. Creation of new teaching methodology for elementary education; for teachers to enhance new teaching practice and philosophy.

(Repeated Question 2013, No. 5)

4. The recommendation of the commission (1959) which paved the way for the development of higher education in Nigeria are listed below:

i. The federal Government should give support for the development of new university planned for 1955;
ii. University College Ibadan should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full university;
iii. All the universities should have B.A (Education) degree courses;
iv. A National Universities Commission should be set up to have undisputed control over the affairs of the universities; particularly, in terms of finance, staff and course;
v. The new Nigeria Universities should be independent of one another and each should confer its own degrees;

i. The Federal Government should give support for the development of new University Planned for 1955.
The Eric Ashby commission's recommendation gave support to the establishment of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, University of Ife, Ile-Ife and the University of Lagos, Lagos. It was after 1970, that state government joined in the establishment of Universities while the Federal Technology and others for Agriculture. Each of these twenty-one (21) states of the Nigerian Federation nearly has two Universities. With this recommendation, there were expansions of Universities.

ii. University College Ibadan should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full University.
By 1960, the University College Ibadan (1947) had established itself as a reputable institution of higher learning. It was also making a great contribution to the man-power needs of Eric Ashby Recommendation Nigeria. But the need for a larger out-put of University graduation was increasingly felt and commonly expressed. For eg as far back as 1955, there were serious thoughts and attempts to establish another University. Ibadan was criticized for its low annual intake said to be conditioned by its residential nature. Partly because of these criticisms the commission recommended that it should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full University, which is now called the University of Ibadan.

All the Universities should have B.A (education) degree courses.
When the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was established, it took the lead in starting a new teachers programme known as the B.A., BSC, and Eric Ashby commission. This meant that a student could combine education courses with one or two teaching subjects and offer them throughout the student's four years to graduate. This replaced the traditional system of taking a degree before coming for a one year diploma in education.

iii. Creation of National University Commission.
A National University Commission (NUC) as a regulatory body for the Nigeria Universities should mentor and have undisputed control over the affairs of the Universities, mostly in areas of finance, staff and courses. This is to remove the excessiveness of the individual Universities.

iv. Independence of New Nigerian Universities.
The new Nigerian Universities according to Eric Ashby recommendations should be independent of one another and each should confer its own degrees. The new Nigerian Universities should be autonomous in pioneering its academic and non-academic activities to other Universities.

(Repeated Questions 2013 No. 2(a) and 2014, No. 1(a))

(Repeated Question 2013, No. 6)

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YEAR: 2011 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 101 TIME: 2 HOURS
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General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Critically examine the Athenian and Spartan systems of education and draw out their similarities and differences

2. Write short notes on each of the following great education thinkers with particular reference to their contributions to Nigerian education system.
i. John Locke (1632 - 1712) and,
ii. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712)

3. Describe the major features of education in ancient Egypt.

4. Discuss the main educational idea of Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)

5. Explain the major threats facing the development of education in Nigeria today.

6. Enumerate and discuss the nature and goals of traditional system of education in Nigeria.

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1. Athens was a Greek city-state whose education was mainly for boys, as there was no specific type of education for girls who were entrusted to their mothers for moral and domestic training.

The Athenian played an organized system of education which was structured into three types of schools for boy. These were:-
a. The letters school for reading and writing;
b. The music school for lyric, poetry and lyre including learning and recitation of poems;
c. The gymnastic school for physical training schooling continued till the age of eighteen. Between the eighteen and twenty years, the boys received military training, after which they were free choose which career to specialize in.

Sparta was one of the ancient Greek city states and was known for its military glory and exploits. Education in Sparta began from age 7 to 20 years, but before them, mothers brought up children in an atmosphere of severity and harshness. Throughout life girls were given a type of education that prepared them for their role as wives and mothers in an atmosphere of severe discipline.

Boys in Sparta were enrolled into formations corresponding to successive age grade. These were divided into smaller units under the authority of comrades of their own age or of young officers. It was a collective education, which progressively removed them from the family and subjected them to garrison life. Everything was organized; they were equally trained to obey, building to the other of their Superiors.

Similarities between Education in Athens and Sparta
Originally, Athens was like Sparta in its approach to the education of the citizens, with a heavy orientation towards the military training. That is the type of education oriented towards the future duties of the soldier. This type of education observed in Athens and Sparta promoted discipline, both of the body and of the mind of the citizens.

Difference between Education in Athens and Sparta
The Athenian education is drastically different from that of the Spartans in that the Athenian education was more liberal and oriented toward the civil Society, while the education in Sparta was fashioned for the development of military life (Prowess).

In Athens, they operated an organized system of education (evaluated system of education) for eg, the educational system for boys was highly structured as there were three types of schools for the boys. This type of structured system of education was not so in Sparta.

The Sophists, itinerant teachers, influenced the education of Athenian youths greatly in that they contributed to the teaching of grammar, rhetoric, Logic; and in the process they helped youths to develop their skills in public speaking and thus their preparation for public life.

Athenian education was mainly for boys as there was no specific type of education to their mothers for moral and domestics training. So unlike in Sparta, girls were given a type of education that prepared them for their role as wives and mothers in an atmosphere of severe discipline.

2(i). John Locke (1632 - 1704) was an English Philosopher, the initiator of the enlightenment movement in England and France. John Locke was raised up in a village near Bristol and educated in Westminster School under the influence of his father. He later entered the Oxford University, there uninspiring so he busied himself with studies outside the formal curriculum, particularly science and medicine; John Locke obtained the bachelor and master's degrees in quick succession at the University. He made the following contribution to education:

2(ii). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 - July 2, 1778) was of Swiss, French and Italian background, although born and brought up in Switzerland by his watchmaker father. He had no education many years until his father fled Geneva to Nyon and placed him in the care of a pastor. Jean-Jacques received his education mostly incidentally from the people he lived or worked with. In fact, he was a man mostly self educated, becoming a great musician, a writer, and an idealist.

He made the following contributions to education.
(Repeated Question 2014, No. 6)

1(a) Five Aims of Traditional Education in Nigeria are:
i. To develop character;
ii. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour;
iii. To develop intellectual skills of the child;
iv. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large; and
v. To develop the child's latent Physical skills.

i. To Develop Character:- Traditional system of education in Nigeria places considerable emphasis on character – training of children which indeed is the corner – stone of African education.

The parents, siblings and other members of the community participate in the education of the child everyone wants him to be sociable, honest, courageous, humble, preserving and of good repute at all times.

ii. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour.
The vocational training starts right from the early stage of children's life when they begin to follow their parents to the farms, rivers, forests, black smiting and weaving shops to learn the occupations of their fore bears (ancestors).

iii. To Develop Intellectual Skills of the Child
Traditional education encourages intellectual growth and development. The child learns the local geography and history of the community. Local history is taught by the elders, as well as the norms, values, songs of praise which accompany many of the historical events make the oral traditional history a stimulating experience which is hard to forget.

iv. To Develop the Child's Latent Physical Skills.
The traditional system of education in Nigeria has a clearly demarcated learning experience for each grade which culminates into the acquisition of desired values, attitudes, and the specialization of individuals in some specific skills. Children develop physical skills as famers, medicine men, fishermen, warriors, carpenters, weavers, carvers, etc. who are tested to be highly skilled in their different calling.

v. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large. The system is aimed at transmitting cultural heritage, like values, norms, attitudes etc., from one generation to another generation through processes like initiation, training, imitation and indoctrination.

1(b) Five (5) merits of traditional education in Nigeria include:
i. According to (Amaele, 2005), "the traditional education in Nigeria is life – long in nature". This means that it aims at equipping individuals with the necessary skills and attitudes that would help them function efficiently and effectively in the society.

ii. The traditional education in Nigeria has been and is still effective in providing functional training, mastery and experiences in artistry, farming, fishing, and other vocational skills, which are needed for the survival of the society.

iii. The system is still found to be relevant in offering solution to the multi – faceted problems of the present day education in Nigeria. In short, there is no doubting the fact that the traditional educational system is still considered very vital in addressing the complete value systems of the present times.

iv. Indeed, the realist nature of the traditional system of education is contained in its advocacy for the acquisition of the right types of values, attitudes and morals in order for the society to be tranquil and peaceful for all to enjoy living in.

v. Traditional education system in Nigeria is a potent and functional means through which societal laws, norms, values morals, etc; are transmitted from one generation to another generation.

Five (5) demerits of traditional system of education in Nigeria include:
i. The traditional education is too rigid, too conservative and to some extent lacks critical examination. Thus, it is not open and does not give enough room research and improvement;

ii. Traditionally classroom settings are teacher centre where the teacher often talks at the students instead of encouraging them to interact, as questions or make them understand the lesson thoroughly;

iii. It involves rote – learning, where students depend on memorization, without having a complete understanding of the subject;

iv. It has limited scope in terms of content and curriculum. The teachers involved may not be professionals, hence limiting the span of knowledge of the students;

v. The traditional system of education lacks uniform standard, structure; the standards vary from teacher to teacher of from community to community.

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2(a) The problem areas include:
i. The expansion in primary education created a high demand for secondary education sector;

ii. Over emphasis on book education in the secondary schools made pupils to despise manual work;

iii. The Ashby commission had called for increased number in the secondary school population and a revision of its curriculum;

iv. Poor quality and quantity of secondary school teachers;

v. Some commissions appointed to review the education systems found out that the content of secondary school education as well as the methods of instruction in such schools was inappropriate.

2(b) The following are steps taking by government to alleviate the problems:
i. In order to meet the increasing number of secondary school students created by the expansion on primary education, government opened many new secondary schools to accommodate this increase in the number of pupils in the primary school;

ii. To solve the problem of low output teachers and quality of the teachers produced, government granted the provision of additional Grade II Training Colleges and extra streams to the existing ones. To make up for the poor quality of teachers, government approved the up for the poor quality of teachers, government approved the upgrading of most of the Grade III Training colleges to Grade II and then to Grade I certificates.

Sooner, the Teachers' Grade I programme gave way to the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) for the preparation of teacher for the lower forms of secondary schools and for the Teacher Training Colleges. Furthermore a new teachers' programme known as the B.A, B. Sc and B.Ed in education was established in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka by the government to enhance the quality of teachers produced;

iii. After independence the government established technical and vocational education to meet up with the problem of over emphasis on book education in the secondary schools. For eg, a technical institute at Kaduna admitted student from all part of the North and Easter Region, in 1960 had thirty – three technical and vocational institutions of various kind. In the western Region government established four trade centers and the women's occupational center at Abeokuta. A Technical Institute now the Auchi polytechnic was established at Auchi, and in Lagos, there was the Yaba College of Technology and the Yaba Trade school at Surulere;

iv. The curriculum which was poor and inappropriate was reviewed in 1969 by the curriculum conference. It reviewed the old curriculum and identify new national goals for Nigerian education, bearing in minds the needs of youths in the task of nation building and national reconstruction;

v. Government encouraged the establishment of private enterprise which helps in creating more secondary schools and development of science equipment in these schools.

Prominent Nigerians who studied abroad like Processor Oyerinde, professor Eyo Ita, N.D., Chief Daniel Henshew, Rev. O. Offong and Alvan Ikoku saw the need for technical /vocational education. They formed a national Education Movement and later opened secondary schools that were somehow technically oriented.

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3(a) Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, he made the following contributions to education:
(i) He advocated the division of education into stages from lowest to the highest and also proposed freedom in education where everybody should be given opportunity to develop his talents to the fullest of his capacity;

(ii) Aristotle saw education as that which can mould the mind of a child into desirable shapes and this can bring happiness to every individual which of course is the ultimate goal of human existence;

(iii) He established his own school in Lyceum, Athens and wrote many books. Aristotle saw education as that which can enhance a person's reasoning capability, making him a wise individual that will then live a good moral life.

(iv) He revised many Plato's ideas by emphasizing methods rooted in observation experience, i.e he emphasized on education of realism.

3(b) Plato made the following contributions to education:
(i) Plato (421 – 347 BC) was a Greek philosopher who developed strongly the concept of philosophy known as "Love of knowledge". In 387 BC Plato founded in Athens the Academy often described as the "first European University" which provided a comprehensive curriculum, including subjects such as astronomy, Biology, Mathematics, Political theory and Philosophy;

(ii) He wrote many writings all in form of dialogues, one of which was the "Republic" which is Plato's longest, most complex and most ambitious. He sees education as a strong instrument for societal stability and Justice;

(iii) Plato created stages for learners; The Brilliant students were trained in Philosophy and writing and later introduced to some other courses. While the less gifted were trained in armed forces and other menial professions depending on their capabilities;

(iv) He emphasized that the state should be responsible for the education of all citizens in which the state runs everything, and all citizens seem to exist for the interest of the state. He emphasized on education of idealism.

3(c) Vittorino da Feltre (1378 – Feb; 2, 1446) was an Italian humanist and teacher. He made the following contributions towards education:
(i) He established his own school called the "House of Joy" where the children from the royal family and other children were educated;

(ii) He believed in individual attention and the adaptation of the teaching to the level of the learner in order to enhance adequate understanding of the learner;

(iii) Vittorino da feltre proposed that the teacher should care for the health and all round needs of learner;

(iv) He taught Latin to Greek to scholars from the East so that they were able to translate Greek works, Making them available to more people. Thus, through him, knowledge was spread far and wide.

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4(a) Five Roles of Missionaries in Introduction of Western Education in Nigeria are as follows:
(i) One of the roles of the missionaries in the introduction of Western education in Nigeria was the opening of the first ever Christian mission station at Badagry, near Lagos, in 1842 under the auspices of the Wesley Methodist Society. Mr. Thomas Birch Freeman and Mr. and Mrs. De Graft aided this mission;

(ii) The catholic missionaries who were the first missionaries to set foot on the Nigerian soil established a seminary on the Island of Sao Tome off the coast of Nigeria as early as 1571 to train Africans as church priests and teachers through the influence of the Portuguese traders. From Sao Tome, the missionaries visited Warri where they established schools and preached the gospel;

(iii) The effort of the Wesleyian Methodist society was further consolidated by three missionaries of the church missionary Society who arrived Badagry from where they later moved to Abeokuta. On the team were Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther, Mr. Henry Townsend and Mr. G.A. Collman. Samuel Ajayi Crowther settled at Igbehin and established two schools – one for boys and the other for girls; while Townsend settled in Ake another part of the town, where he built a mission house, a church and a school;

(iv) The Presbyterian mission arrived at Calabar and established a station there in 1846. In 1853 the southern Baptist convention opened a school at Ijaye and another at Ogbomoso and Lagos in 1955. Between 1842 and 1964 various missionary bodies have made their presence felt especially within the Lagos, Calabar and across the Niger areas. These missionary bodies are:
(a) The Western (Wesley) Methodist Society;
(b) The Church Missionary Society
(c) The Baptist Mission
(d) The Roman Catholic Mission
(e) The Presbyterian Church of Scotland;
(f) The Primitive Methodist Missionary Society and
(g) The Qua Iboe Mission

(v) In Calabar and Bonny, developments in the introduction of Western education by the Church Mission Society were taking place; the chiefs of the area were, however not interested in the evangelical activities of the missionaries but would rather want their children to be taught how to gauge palm oil and other mercantile businesses as trading was the main interest of the people of the area. The missionaries had no option but to accept the people's wishes.

4(b) Five (5) weaknesses of education offered by the missionaries include:
(i) It emphasized mainly on religion of the missionaries; (Education based on religion)
(ii) Acute shortage of fund; facilities and teaching materials;
(iii) It involved rote – learning;
(iv) The education was too rigid and too conservative;
(v) The teaching process was teacher – centred.

i. Education Based on Religion:- The focus of the education offered by the missionaries was mainly on religion. According to Fafunwa Babbs A. (1974) "the missions' education emphasized its own importance (religion) and spared no pains at proving that one denomination was better than the other".
In addition to this, they did not pay attention to the cultural heritage of their host communities.

ii. Shortage of Fund/Facilities:- There were acute shortage of fund, facilities, teaching /learning materials which affected the availability of qualified teacher. The education offered by the missionaries lacked adequate supervision and necessary facilities to run education. They depended on foreign support for assistance;

iii. It involved Rote-Learning:- The education offered by the missionaries was manly on rote – learning and the teacher taught practically everything from the one textbook which is the "Bible". This method of teaching depends on memorization by the students without having a complete understanding of the subject;

iv. Rigidity in Education:- This type of education was too rigid, too conservative and to some extent lacks critical examination. Thus, this type of education is not open and does not give enough room for research and improvement;

v. It was Teacher – Centred:- The classroom settings were teacher – Centred where the teacher often teaches at the students instead of encouraging them to participate actively in the class.

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The scientific and technological breakthrough of the modern world owe a lot to the researchers conducted by the following great scholars of Islam:

i. Averron (Ibn Rushd)
Averron / Ibn Rushd (April 14, 1126 – December 10, 1198) was responsible for the development of Aristotle's philosophy, which made a clean distinction between religious and scientific truths. His works in the area of philosophical discourse paved the way for the liberation of scientific research from the theological dogmatism that was prevalent in churches and mosques.

ii. Avicenna (Ibn Sina)
Avicenna (980 – 1037 CE) was the physician, who with other Arab scholars spearheaded the introduction of geometry and the development of spherical trigonometry, Particularly the sine, tangent and cotangent.

His most famous works are "The Book of Healing – a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and "The canon of medicine (al – oanun Fi at – tibb), an overview of all aspects of medicine that became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and remained in use as late as 1650.

iii. Muhammad Ibn Musa al – Khwarizmi (780 AD – 850 AD)
He was a Persian Mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer during the Abbasid Caliphate he was responsible for the introduction of decimal notation and assigning digits the value of position. His compendious book on Calculation by completion and balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic, also he developed the concept of the algorithm in mathematics and was known as the father of algebra.

iv. Abu Raihan Al – Biruni (973 – 1048 CE);
He was a Persian Scholar and Scientist, one of the most learned men of his age and outstanding intellectual figure. Al-Biruni's most famous works are Athar al-baqiy (chronology of Ancient Nations); at - Tafhim (Elements of Astrology); al-Qanun al-mas'udi (The Mas'udi canon), a major work on astronomy, which he dedicated to sultan mas'ud of Ghazna; Ta'rikh al-hind (A History of India); and Kitab as-saydalah, a treatise on drugs used in medicine.

In his works on astronomy, he discussed with approval the theory of the Earth's rotation on its axis and made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude. He was the first one to determine the circumference of the earth. In the field of physics, he explained natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics and determined with remarkable accuracy the specific Weight of eighteen precious stones and metals. In his works on geography, he advanced the daring view that the valley of the Indus (River in Asia) had once been a sea basin.

(v) Nasir Al – Din Al – Tusi (1201 – 1274 CE)
He was the scholar of astronomy and Non – Euclidean geometry; he put his observatory to good use, making very accurate tables of planetary movements.

Al-Tusi Published "the Zij-i-i Ikhan" (the ilkhanic Tables), written first in Persian and later translated into Arabic, after Making observations for twelve years. This work contains tables for computing the positions of the planets, and it also contains a star catalogue. This was a very big achievement in the field of astronomy.

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6(a) Jean – Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 – July, 2 1778) contributions in education include:
(i) He emphasized that the curriculum used for the child should reflect the interest and standards of the child rather than revolve around the interest of the adult word; that in teaching the child, the state of its readiness for learning should be taken into account;

(ii) He believed that a good teacher should study the child he is teaching and seek to understand him thoroughly;

(iii) Jean – Jacques Rousseau argued in his book that feelings should come before thinking, and stressed that the child should be controlled not by adults' wishes but by things around him; that the child is not a miniature adult who should be judged with adults' yard sticks;

(iv) He stated that the ideal education is one offered by nature, i.e that a person would be best educated school settings;

(v) He was reckoned with as the writer of the "Emile" (the young leaner), a treatise in the form of a novel which was published in 1762.

Five Contributions of John Locke (1632 – 1704) in Education.
(i) John Locke was an English Philosopher, the initiator of the enlightenment movement in England and France. He was of the view that good education should build up both that physical and the mental sides of a person and that through exercises, play and a lot of sleep the body should be toughened (made strong);

(ii) With regard to mental training, he emphasized that character should come first before learning, and the purpose of education should be to instill virtue, wisdom and good breeding;

(iii) He believed that in learning a language, the rules should be played down while usage should be paramount; that reading should come before writing;

(iv) He held that young people should be allowed to express their feelings and should not be restrained from their environment and also believed so much in giving examples to the child which parents have a big role to play;

(v) John Locke emphasized in teaching the various subjects to the child and stressed the importance of mathematics as the "Powers of abstraction develop".

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YEAR: 2010 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PDE 102
TIME: 2 HOURS
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General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) With adequate examples differentiate between growth and development?
(b) List and explain the major functions of maturation?

2. Explain the general principles of development and what factors affect proper development of a child.

3. List and discuss any five (5) factors that affect pre – natal development?

4. (a) Who is an adolescent?
(b) List and discuss five needs of the adolescent and how they can be met

5. Examine the significance of Piaget's theory of cognitive development to teaching and learning

6. (a) Describe fully the stages in child development?
(b) Psychoanalytic theory asserts that the mind is a combination of parts that performs different functions. Mention and briefly explain these parts.

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(Repeated Question 2013, No. 3(a)).

1(b) The major functions of maturation are:
(i) Phylogenetic functions; and
(ii) Ontogenetic functions.

(i) Phylogenetic Functions:
These are functions which are common to all members of a species. These include crawling, creeping, sitting, jumping, walking, etc.
Experience is not necessary to these functions as they are time, age and physical and mental maturity dependent. Phylogency is the study of evolution.

(ii) Ontogenetic Functions:
These depend on experience; they are functions common to individuals. Some of these functions are swimming, climbing, pointing, speed, etc. Here, without experience or training, development cannot take place.

It should be noted that no heredity tendency can mature fully without environment support, i.e environment influence development.

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The general principles of development are:
(i) Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns;
(ii) Proximodistal Growth Patterns;
(iii) The Principle of Differentiation (Orthogenetic principle);
(iv) Principles of Complexity of Growth;
(v) Modifiability of Rates and Pattern of Growth;
(vi) The Principles of Asynchronous Growth or Split Growth;
(vii) Principle of Discontinuity of Growth;
(viii) Structure Generally Precedes Function; and
(ix) Principle of Uniqueness of Individuals.

(i) Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns
This principle states that development spread over the body from head to foot (top to bottom). This means that improvement in structures and functions com first in the head area, then in the trunk and leg region. The organs in the area of the head develop first and mature first before the organs in other areas.
Hence, the child is first able to see, hear sound and jingles before using his hands and legs in a meaningful way.

(ii) Proximodistal Growth Pattern
This principle describes the direction of development. It states that development proceeds from the central axis of the body towards the extremities, i.e. development proceeds from the central axis of the body to outward.

For example, in the foetus, the head and the trunk are well development before the rudimentary limb buds appear. The arm buds gradually appear and develop into the hands and lastly fingers before his hands and fingers respectively and can use the later as a unit before he can control the movements of his fingers.

(iii) The Principles of Differentiation (Orthogenetic Principle)
The principle does not involve the direction of development; instead it holds that development proceeds from simple to complex, from homogenous to heterogeneous and from general to specific.

At conception, the mother egg-cell and the sperm from the father fuse to form a zygote which starts to divide itself into 2 then 4 to 8 up to billions of cells that form a body.
In both mental and motor responses, general activities always precede specific activities. In any post natal life, the infants can move his whole body but incapable of specific responses.

(iv) Principle of Complexity of Growth
Growth is an extremely complex process, it has different collective aspects. It is complex because what happens to one area affects other areas. The effect of this is that it is not easy to specify casual relationship since there can be other causes in other areas, i.e. causes for growth retardation in a child may be traced to reasons other than malnutrition. It may be because of emotional stress, illness, social isolation or physical harm.

(v) Modification of Rates and Patterns
The view of this principle is that growth is natural but the rate and pattern of growth can be modified by various factors and techniques. Some of these factors are:
(a) Nutrition and drug taken by the mother;
(b) Environmental stimulation;
(c) Opportunity to learn;
(d) Illness and disease;
(e) Genetic aspect (Mutational changes);
The presence of absence of some of these faiths can retard the rate and pattern of growth.

(vi) Structure Generally Precedes Function
All physical components of the body including the brain usually mature and get ready before they can be functional. Before any organ can be used by the child, such an organ must be physically and physiologically ready before they can perform development tasks.

(vii) Principle of Uniqueness of Individuals
The principle states that every individual is unique, that they are no two people that are exactly alike. Every child's pattern and rate of growth is peculiar to him or her. We may say that an average age for a child to walk is twelve months, yet some children walk later or earlier than this.

Among twins of the same background, there are still some obvious differences. One may be more active than the other, some children like being quiet; others respond to stimuli gradually and bet others respond very fast. This gives rise to individuality in the classroom. Some children are more active and very vocal while others are quiet and calm.

(viii) The Principle of Asynchronous Growth or Split Growth
The principle states that the changes that occur in the body proportion are due to Asynchronous or split growth. This means that the different parts of the body have their own period of rapid and slow growth and that each reaches its own mature sixe at its own time. Growth in all parts of the body is however continuous and concurrent, for eg. A child's brain does not stop growing while his muscles are growing.

Asynchronous growth is particularly obvious when different parts of the body are compared, eg. the muscles, bones, lungs and the genitals increase approximately twenty (20) times during the growth years, while the eyes and the brain which are relatively more developed at birth increase much less. The eye balls complete its growth during the first five years and the brain also completes its growth during the first 10 years but the heart and some other internal organs require more than twenty years to complete its growth.
Though growth and development usually proceed in an orderly sequence, the rate of growth often differs from one organs and system to the other and from one period to another.

(ix) Principle of Discontinuity of Growth:
The principle asserts that the rate of growth changes at different periods. There are periods if acceleration and decelerations of growth.
During the first nine months in the womb the growth is very fast the child develops from a microscopically small sperm cell to an infant of about 3kg mass. The growth is mainly physiological and consists of all bodily structures.

There are four stages of growth comprising two rapid and two slow stages VIZ:
(a) from birth – two (2) years = Rapid growth
(b) from two (2) years – puberty = Slow growth
(c) puberty – sixteen (16) years = Rapid growth
(d) sixteen (16) years – maturity = Growth is slow

Factors that affect proper development of a child are:

(i) Hereditary Factors (Nature)
This includes all the genetic make-up or traits/characteristics inherited by the child from the parents which affect the development of the child. Such characteristics include physical features, intelligence, disorders, blood type, etc.

(ii) Environmental Factors (Nurture)
This include all factors influencing the development of an individual right from the time of conception. It includes such factors as diet, health of the mother when the child is in the womb, home influences, school, church and neighborhood influences, effects of climates, geographical location and all things that stimulates the sense.

(iii) Emotional Factor
The separation of the body from his parents during infancy and early childhood can result to retardation of growth.

----------------------------------------------------------------

1(a) Five Aims of Traditional Education in Nigeria are:

i, To develop character,

ii. | To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy;
attitude towards honest labour,

iii, | To develop intellectual skills of the child ;

iv. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of
the community at large; and

Vv. To develop the child’s latent Physical skills.

i. To Develop Character:- Traditional system of education in
Nigeria places considerable emphasis on character —
training of children which indeed is the corner — stone of
African education.

The parents, siblings and other members of the community
participate in the education of the child everyone wants him
to be sociable, honest, courageous, humble, preserving
and of good repute at all times.

li. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a
healthy attitude towards honest labour.
The vocational training starts right from the early stage of
children’s life when they begin to follow their parents to the

42

farms, rivers, forests, black smiting and weaving shops to
lear the occupations of their fore bears (ancestors).

ti. To Develop Intellectual Skills of the Child

Traditional education encourages intellectual growth and
development. The child learns the local geography and
history of the community. Local history is taught by the
elders, as well as the norms, values, songs of praise which
accompany many of the historical events make the oral
traditional history a stimulating experience which is hard to
forget.

iv. To Develop the Child's Latent Physical Skills.

The traditional system of education in Nigeria has a clearly
demarcated learning experience for each grade which
culminates into the acquisition of desired values, attitudes,
and the specialization of individuals in some specific skills.
Children develop physica! skills as famers, medicine men,
fishermen, warriors, carpenters, weavers, carvers, etc. who
are tested to be highly skilled in their different calling.

v. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural
heritage of the community at large. The system is aimed at
transmitting cultural heritage, like values, norms, attitudes
etc., from one generation to another generation through
processes like initiation, training, imitation and
indoctrination,

(b) Five (5) merits of traditional education in Nigeria include:

According to (Amaele, 2005), “the traditional education in Nigeria
is life — long in nature”. This means that it aims at equipping

43

iii

individuals with the necessary skills and attitudes that would help
them function efficiently and effectively in the society.

The traditional education in Nigeria has been and is still effective
in providing functional training, mastery and experiences in
artistry, farming, fishing, and other vocational skills, which are
needed for the survival of the society.

The system is still found to be relevant in offering solution to the
multi — faceted problems of the present day education in Nigeria.
In short, there is no doubting the fact that the traditional
educational system is still considered very vital in addressing the
complete value systems of the present times,

Indeed, the realist nature of the traditional system of education is
contained in its advocacy for the acquisition of the right types of
values, attitudes and morals in order for the society to be tranquil
and peaceful for all to enjoy living in.

Traditional education system in Nigeria ls a potent and functional
means through which societal laws, norms, values morais, etc;
are transmitted from one generation to another generation.

Five (5) demerits of traditional system of education in Nigeria include:

The traditional education is too rigid, too conservative and to
some extent jacks critical examination. Thus, it is not open and
does not give enough room research and improvement;

Traditionally classroom settings are teacher centre where the
teacher often talks at the students instead of encouraging them

44

to interact, as questions or make them understand the lesson
thoroughly;

It involves rote — learning, where students depend on
memorization, without having a complete understanding of the
subject;

It has lim'ted scope in terms of content and curriculum. The
teachers involved may not be professionals, hence limiting the
span of knowledge of the students;

The traditional system of education lacks uniform standard,
structure; the standards vary from teacher to teacher of from
community to community.

The problem areas include:
i. The expansion in primary education created a high demand
for secondary education sector;

i. Over emphasis on book education in the secondary
schoois made pupils to despise manual work;

4s

n
=

The Ashby commission had called for increased number in
the secondary school population and a revision of its
curriculum;

iv. Poor quality and quantity of secondary schoo! teachers;

v. Some commissions appointed to review the education
systems found out that the content of secondary school
education as well as the methods of instruction in such
schools was inappropriate.

2(b) The following are steps taking by government to alleviate the
problems:

i. In order to meet the increasing number of secondary
school students created by the expansion on primary
education, government opened many new secondary
schools to accommodate this increase in the number of
pupils in the primary school;

ii. | To solve the problem of low output teachers and quality of
the teachers produced, government granted the provision
of additional Grade II Training Colleges and extra streams
to the existing ones. To make up for the poor quality of
teachers, government approved the up for the poor quality
of teachers, government approved the upgrading of most of
the Grade Ill Training colleges to Grade II and then to
Grade | certificates.

Sooner, the Teachers’ Grade | programme gave way to the
Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) for the preparation of
teacher for the lower forms of secondary schools and for

iii
i.

the Teacher Training Colleges. Furthermore a new
teachers’ programme known as the B.A, B. Sc and B.Ed in
education was established in the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka by the government to enhance the quality of
teachers produced;

After independence the government established technical
and vocational education to meet up with the problem of
over emphasis on book education in the secondary
schools. For eg, a technical institute at Kaduna admitted
Student from all part of the North and Easter Region, in
1960 had thirty — three technical and vocational institutions
of various kind. In the western Region government
established four trade centers and the women's
occupational center at Abeokuta. A Technical Institute now
the Auchi polytechnic was established at Auchi, and in
Lagos, there was the Yaba College of Technology and the
Yaba Trade school at Surulere;

The curriculum which was poor and inappropriate was
reviewed in 1969 by the curriculum conference. It reviewed
the old curriculum and identify new national goals for
Nigerian education, bearing in minds the needs of youths in
the task of nation building and national reconstruction;

Government encouraged the establishment of private
enterprise which helps in creating more secondary schools
and development of science equipment in these schools.

Prominent Nigerians who studied abroad like Processor
Oyerinde, professor Eyo Ita, N.D., Chief Daniel Henshew,

47

a.
b.
c.

Rev. O. Offong and Alvan ikoku saw the need for technical
/vocational education. They formed @ national Education
Movement and later opened secondary schools that were
somehow technically oriented.

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, he made the
following contributions to education:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

‘He advocated the division of education into stages from

lowest to the highest and also proposed freedom in
education where everybody should be given opportunity to
develop his talents to the fullest of his capacity;

Aristotle saw education as that which can mould the mind
of a child into desirable shapes and this can bring
happiness to every individual which of course is the
ultimate goal of human existence;

He established his own school in Lyceum, Athens and
wrote many books. Aristotle saw education as that which
can enhance a person's reasoning capability, making him a
wise individual that will then live a good moral life.

He revised many Plato’s ideas by emphasizing methods
rooted in observation experience, I.e he emphasized on
education of realism.

b) Plato made the following contributions to education:
(i) Plato (421 — 347 BC) was a Greek philosopher who
developed strongly the concept of philosophy known as
“Love of knowledge”. In 387 BC Plato founded in Athens
the Academy often described as the “first European
University” which provided a comprehensive curriculum,
including subjects such as astronomy, Biology,

Mathematics, Political theory and Philosophy;

(ii) | He wrote many writings all in form of dialogues, one of
which was the “Republic” which |s Plato's longest, most
complex and most ambitious. He sees education as a
strong instrument for societal stability and Justice;

(ii) Plato created stages for learners; The Brilliant students
were trained in Philosophy and writing and later introduced
to some other courses. While the less gifted were trained in
armed forces and other menial professions depending on
their capabilities;

(iv) He emphasized that the state should be responsible for the
education of all citizens in which the state runs everything,
and all citizens seem to exist for the interest of the state.
He emphasized on education of idealism.

3(c) Vittorino da Feltre (1378 — Feb; 2, 1446) was an Italian humanist
and teacher. He made the following contributions towards
education:

(a)
(b)

4{a)
(i)

(i) He established his own school called the “House of Joy”
where the children from the royal family and other children
were educated;

(ii) He believed in individual attention and the adaptation of the
teaching to the level of the learner in order to enhance
adequate understanding of the learner;

(iii) Vittorino da feltre proposed that the teacher should care for
the health and all round needs of learner;

(iv) He taught Latin to Greek to scholars from the East so that
they were able to translate Greek works, Making them
available to more people. Thus, through him, knowledge
was spread far and wide.

Five Roles of Missionaries in Introduction of Western
Education in Nigeria are as follows:

One of the roles of the missionaries in the introduction of
Westem education in Nigeria was the opening of the first ever
Christian mission station at Badagry, near Lagos, in 1842 under
the auspices of the Wesley Methodist Society. Mr. Thomas Birch
Freeman and Mr. and Mrs. De Graft aided this mission;

(ii)

| (iii)

&)

The catholic missionaries who were the first missionaries to set
foot on the Nigerian soil established a seminary on the Island of
Sao Tome off the coast of Nigeria as early as 1571 to train
Africans as church priests and teachers through the influence of
the Portuguese traders. From Sao Tome, the missionaries visited
Warri where they established schools and preached the gospel;

The effort of the Wesleyian Methodist society was further
consolidated by three missionaries of the church missionary
Society who arrived Badagry from where they later moved to
Abeokuta. On the team were Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther, Mr.
Henry Townsend and Mr. G.A. Coliman. Samuel Ajayi Crowther
settled at Igbehin and established two schools — one for boys
and the other for girls; while Townsend settled in Ake another
part of the town, where he built a mission house, a church and a
school;

The Presbyterian mission arrived at Calabar and established a
station there in 1846. In 1853 the southern Baptist convention
opened a schoo! at ljaye and another at Ogbomoso and Lagos in
1955. Between 1842 and 1964 various missionary bodies have
made their presence felt especially within the Lagos, Calabar and
across the Niger areas. These missionary bodies are:

(a) The Western (Wesley) Methodist Society;

(b) |The Church Missionary Society

(c) The Baptist Mission

(d) The Roman Catholic Mission

(e) The Presbyterian Church of Scotland;

(f) | The Primitive Methodist Missionary Society and
(g) The Qua Iboe Mission

51

(v)

In Calabar and Bonny, developments in the introduction of
Western education by the Church Mission Society were
taking place; the chiefs of the area were, however not
interested in the evangelical activities of the missionaries
but would rather want their children to be taught how to
gauge paim oil and other mercantile businesses as trading
was the main interest of the people of the area. The
missionaries had no option but to accept the people's
wishes.

4(b) Five (5) weaknesses of education offered by the missionaries
include:
(i) It emphasized mainly on religion of the missionaries;

(ii)
(ii)
(iv)
(v)

(Education based on religion)

Acute shortage of fund; facilities and teaching materials;
\t involved rote — learning;

The education was too rigid and too conservative;

The teaching process was teacher — centred.

Education Based on Religion:- The focus of the
education offered by the missionaries was mainly on
religion. According to Fafunwa Babbs A. (1974) “the
missions’ education emphasized its own importance
(religion) and spared no pains at proving that one
denomination was better than the other’.

In addition to this, they did not pay attention to the cultural
heritage of their host communities.

Shortage of Fund/Facilities:- There were acute shortage
of fund, facilities, teaching /learning materials which
affected the availability of qualified teacher. The education
offered by the missionaries lacked adequate supervision

$2

and necessary facilities to run education. They depended
on foreign support for assistance;

iii, It involved Rote-Learning:- The education offered by the
missionaries was manly on rote — learning and the teacher
taught practically everything from the one textbook which is
the “Bible”. This method of teaching depends on
merrorization by the students without having a complete
understanding of the subject;

iv. Rigidity in Education:- This type of education was too
rigid, too conservative and to some extent lacks critical
examination. Thus, this type of education is not open and
does not give enough room for research and Improvement;

v. It was Teacher — Centred:- The classroom settings were
teacher — Centred where the teacher often teaches at the
students instead of encouraging them to participate actively
in the class.

ific and technological breakthrough of the modern world owe
the researchers conducted by the following great scholars of,

on (Ibn Rushd)

on / Ibn Rushd (April 14, 1126 — December 10, 1198) was
sible for the development of Aristotle's philosophy, which
a clean distinction between religious and scientific truths.

53

His works in the area of philosophical discourse paved the way
for the liberation of scientific research from the thedlogical
dogmatism that was prevalent in churches and mosques.

Avicenna (Ibn Sina)

Avicenna (980 — 1037 CE) was the physician, who with other
Arab scholars spearheaded the introduction of geometry and the
development of spherical trigonometry, Particularly the sine,
tangent and cotangent.

His most famous works are “The Book of Healing — a vast
philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and “The canon of
medicine (al — oanun Fi at — tibb), an overview of all aspects of
medicine that became a standard medical text at many medieval
universities and remained in use as late as 1650.

Muhammad Ibn Musa al — Khwarizmi (780 AD — 850 AD)

He was a Persian Mathematician, astronomer, astrologer,
geographer during the Abbasid Caliphate he was responsible for
the introduction of decimal notation and assigning digits the value
of position. His compendious book on Calculation by completion
and balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear
and quadratic equations in Arabic, also he developed the
concept of the algorithm in mathematics and was known as the
father of algebra.

Abu Raihan Al — Biruni (973 — 1048 CE);

He was a Persian Scholar and Scientist, one of the most learned
men of his age and outstanding intellectual figure. Al-Biruni’s
most famous works are Athar al-bagiy (chronology of Ancient
Nations); at - Tafhim (Elements of Astrology); al-Qanun al-

.

mas'udi (The Mas’udi canon), a major work on astronomy, which
he dedicated to sultan mas’ud of Ghazna; Ta’rikh al-hind (A
History of India); and Kitab as-saydalah, a treatise on drugs used
in medicine.

in his works on astronomy, he discussed with approval the theory
of the Earth's rotation on its axis and made accurate calculations
of latitude and longitude. He was the first one to determine the
circumtere ice of the earth. In the field of physics, he explained
natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics and determined with
remarkable accuracy the specific Weight of eighteen precious
stones and metals. In his works on geography, he advanced the
daring view that the valley o7 the Indus (River in Asia) had once
been a sea basin.

(v) Nasir Al — Din Al - Tusi (1201 - 1274 CE)

(a)

He was the scholar of astronomy and Non — Euclidean geometry;
he put his observatory to good use, making very accurate tables
of planetary movements.

Al-Tusi Published “the Zij--i Ikhan” (the ilkhanic Tables), written
first in Persian and later translated into Arabic, after Making
observations for twelve years. This work contains tables for
computing the positions of the planets, and it also contains a star
catalogue. This was a very big achievement in the field of
astronomy.

6(a) Jean — Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 — July, 2 1778)
contributions in education include:

(i)

(ii)

(iti)

(iv)

(v)

He emphasized that the curriculum used for the child
should reflect the interest and standards of the child rather
than revolve around the interest of the adult word: that in
teaching the child, the state of its readiness for learning
should be taken into account;

He believed that a good teacher should study the child he
is teaching and seek to understand him thoroughly;

Jean — Jacques Rousseau argued in his book that feelings
should come before thinking, and stressed that the child
should be controlled not by adults’ wishes but by things
around him; that the child is not a miniature adult who
should be judged with adults’ yard sticks;

He stated that the ideal education is one offered by nature,
i.e that a person would be best educated school settings;

He was reckoned with as the writer of the “Emile” (the
young leaner), a treatise in the form of a novel which was
published in 1762.

Five Contributions of John Locke (1632 - 1704) in
Education.

(i)

John Locke was an English Philosopher, the initiator of the
enlightenment movement in England and France. He was
of the view that good education should build up both that
physical and tne mental! sides of a person and that through

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

exercises, play and a lot of sleep the body should be
toughened (made strong);

With regard to mental training, he emphasized that
character should come first before learning, and the
purpose of education should be to instill virtue, wisdom and
good breeding;

He believed that in learning a language, the rules should be
played down while usage should be paramount; that
reading should come before writing:

He held that young people should be allowed to express
their feelings and should not be restrained from their
environment and also believed so much in giving examples
to the child which parents have a big role to play;

John Locke emphasized in teaching the various subjects to

the child and stressed the importance of mathematics as
the “Powers of abstraction develop”.

57

YEAR: 2010 GENERAL METHODS IN EDUCATION
(PDE 103)

oe TIME: 2 HOURS |
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all
c. All questions carry equal marks.

ees
1. Write short note on the following concept as they relate to the genera’
concept of education,
a Initiation
b. Training
c. Instructions
d Indoctrination
€ Schooling
2 a. Explain the term “behavioural objective”

discuss any five(5)characteristics of behavioural objectives,

3. a Describe the discussion method of teaching.
b List and explain any three (3) advantages and three (3)
disadvantage of discussion method,

4. a. — Identify any four(4) learning problem in children,
b. List and discuss any four (4) ways 10 cope with children with
leaming problems.

5. @ What do you understand by the term “record”?
b. Explain the importance of record keeping in schools wit
example.

6- a. Define resource material and identify any five (5) principles tc
be considered in the choice of teaching resource materials,

b. Give two (2) examples each of audio material and audio- visue
material and indicate their relevance to instruction.

118

INITIATION
This is the process of introducing a new member into the
membership of a society to internalize their practices, norms,
rules and regulations, The activities involved in the process of
initiating are usually gradual and are aimed to develop the
individuals mind and body. Education also involves some
elements of initiation as individuals are introduced into certain
generally accepted knowledge, ideas and beliefs, Education
involves others agencies like the home, the age grades, cultural
societies, the school and the religious movements. All these
agencies practice initiation in one form or the other. Initiation is
usually for the benefit of the individual and the society. The
uninitiated cannot actualize himself or herself in the society and
contribute meaningfully to the growth of that society. In the
schoo! setting, all cases of orientation, induction and
matriculation are forms of initiation.

TRAINING

Training is a process deliberately planned to impart into someone
skills in the performance of an operation. Efficiency in the
performance of a given task is usually the aim. The task may be
mental or physical. Training does not require the individual to
understand the underlying principles or the discretion to use
those skills or not. it is specific , limited and narrow in direction.
Training can therefore not be equated with education, However,

119

it is one of the processes at educating. Thus, physical traininc
exercises the muscles while mental training exercises the mind
In the school system, rote learning through recitation of poems,

etc, is training the mind and Physical education trains the
muscles.

INSTRUCTION

Instruction is the process of building into the mind the kno
of facts, relations, rules Or principles of one kind or another
This could be done through verbal, written or other non verb

expressions. The instructor is usually taken as one who has th

Indoctrination involves the use of non rational means in an
attempt to impart unquestioning commitment to the truth o
certain improvable claims with the intention of making them stick.
Indoctrination thus involves some elements of coercion.

Indoctrination occurs in the teaching of absolute moral vaiues, for
€.g., truth, justice, purity, teaching of religious beliefs, political
ideologies like democracy, communism and socialism.

A teacher that attempts to inculcate into the minds of his pupils

his own value system, beliefs, attitudes and ideas js
indoctrinating. This should not be encouraged. The teache:

120

should encourage and enhance freedom and intellectual integrity
in the classroom.

SCHOOLING

It is true that schooling is the process of formal education but it is
not by itself education as the concept is taken to be synonymous
with educating. The aim of the school is to develop a person's
abilities and talents following some prescribed rules, regulations
and curriculum. It is through the school that the society teaches
values, skills, treasured knowledge important to the survival of
society and the individual schooling is an essential process to
education but still it is not education. The school is the most
organized and systematized institution which brings pupils
together for the purpose of educating them.

QUESTION 2 .

Explain the term “behavioural objective”
discuss any five(5)characteristics of behavioural objectives.

1(a) Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour refers to all of a person of overt actions that others can directly observe while mental processes refers to the private thoughts, emotions, feelings and motives that people around us cannot directly observe.

Psychology of education is the application of psychological principles, research findings and theories to solve educational problems. Thus, educational psychology is the solution of educational problems as they affect the teacher, student, and the teaching (learning situation).

1(b) (Repeat Question 2012, No. 2(a))

Note: The significance of educational psychology is incorporated in its scope.

(Repeated Question (2012, No. 3(a)).

3(i) Cognitive learning emphasizes role of experience in dealing with human knowledge. This means that children need to be constantly reminded of the need to use knowledge which may have been gained in the past as a building block for tackling subsequent problems.

3(ii) Transfer of learning is an important idea in cognitive learning. Children should be made to look for similarities between one learning activity and another. Rules or strategies that have been used in one situation may often be used in similar situations later. Transfer of learning is greatest when there is similarity between two activities in content or procedure.

3(iii) Insightfulness and Purposefulness are necessary qualities in learning. This implies that the teacher should direct children to look for pattern and relationship in facing learning activities in the classroom. In so doing, they find out that for any problem, there may be options. Which of these options will apply to a particular situation will depend on a careful analysis of the nature of the problem. Having made the analysis, the learner chooses a definite and profitable approach to the problem.

3(iv) Cognitive theory also emphasizes the use of reinforcement in the encouragement of learning. Classroom work today relies on reinforcement for part of the effectiveness of the teacher. Teachers should know the kinds of reinforcers which can be used to encourage learners and use them to the advantage of our educational system.

3(v) The human infant is extremely pliable and can be taught a variety of ideas and skills. The lesson from this is that the teacher should create the necessary climate for children to profit from several influences. The teacher ought to believe that human beings can be taught no matter how unreceptive they are to present ideas.

4. Five ways teachers can promote remembering among their pupils include any of the following:
(i) Organize the material to be learned;
(ii) Encourage the use of mental imagery;
(iii) Attract and hold the attention of the pupils;
(iv) Teach the children how to use a variety of Mnemonic devices;
(v) Create a conducive learning environment

(i) Organize the Material to be Learned
There is a strong relationship between the degree of organization, meaningfulness of material to be learned and learning. Material that is well organized, orderly and systematic is easily understood and remembered. To maximize comprehension and recall, information needs to be presented in an organized, meaningful manner and matched to the pupil's level of cognitive development. Teachers should therefore help their pupils to grasp the meaning of each learning task. The materials to be learnt should be clear, simple and straight to the point. Give the main gist of the lesson instead of rambling. Let the children see the relationship between objects, concepts, facts and principles. The teacher should use a variety of examples and graphical illustrations (drawings, diagrams, charts, posters, graphs, tables, etc). He should emphasize understanding an application in the assignments.

(ii) Encourages the Use of Mental Imagery
The teacher should teach the children to make mental picture of what is being learnt. Let them visualize concrete and abstract words describe what they use. Let them imagine what is going on in a story as it is read. During spelling lessons, let them imagine the appearance of each word and associate the words with their meaning. Let them form a picture in their mind's eye of diagrams, relationships, concepts, etc since children differ from one another in their powers of imagery, the teacher should allow them to use as many of their senses as possible images when they have seen, heard, tasted, touched, said and written the learning material.

(iii) Attract and Hold the Attention of the pupils
The child is particularly faced with a wide range of stimuli at any one time. As a child, he has not learned to handle or ignore some of these distracting stimuli. And unless he attends to what is being learned, he cannot move them to the long term memory. The teacher should therefore use a variety of strategies to attract and hold attention. Individuals are sensitive to any sudden change in the environment. Things that stand out, that break a continuity, or unpredictable are likely to attract attention. The teacher can therefore try the following examples:

(a) Vary his voice, gesture, body motions and expressions from time to time;
(b) Highlight the need and usefulness of the learning material to the present and future lives of the pupil;
(c) Use attractive (coloured) chalk to emphasize importance points written on the board;
(d) Train the children to make listening and observing a habit.

(iv) Teach the Children how to use a variety of Mnemonic Devices
A good number of school work requires learning by 'heart'. There is need to memorize the letters of the alphabet, numerals, symbols, biological names and systems, formulae, definitions, dates, poems, scientific principles, etc. The teacher should encourage the pupils to use various devices for improving recall. The devices for improving recall in a quick orderly way are generally called Mnemonics. The following are some examples.

a. Rhymes for example, the calendar rule "thirty days has September...." And spelling rule "I" before "e" except after "C" for spelling like "believe" 'receive' are useful aids to memory.

b. First letter mnemonic (called a acronym) for example, BODMAS which stands for Bracket, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction in that order of ROYGBIV which stands for the colour of the rainbow – Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet, are also useful mnemonic devices.

Various other mnemonic devices exists. The teacher should explain how they work and support them with examples. Once the pupils have understood how mnemonic are supposed to work, they should be encourage to construct mnemonics to learn various facts and concepts. Children also need to know how to use other perceptual organizers such as underlining important points, placing bars against paragraphs, using arrows to establish relationships between one idea and another, such perpetual organizer help the location and retrieval of valuable information.

v. Create a Conducive Learning Environment
Our past experience stored in the long-term memory have a strong influence on our new learning and therefore on our ability to store and retrieve information. The emotional and motivational state of the child at the time of learning can either facilitate or interfere with the recall of such materials. A worried child for example, will find it difficult to recall what he has learnt. The learning environment should therefore be warm, loving, pleasant and interesting. Through proper and regular revision, for example, the teacher can minimize the tension that often accompany the onset of examinations.

5(a) Motivation is defined as a pushing or moving power that makes an individual to strive to achieve a set goal despite difficulties. Motivation as a concept also refers to that which initiates, increase or reduces the vigour or the enthusiasm of an individual's level of activity. Motivation provides the necessary force or impetus for learning or for performing any work that is worthwhile. Motivation comes from the word motive which is a desire to attain certain goals.

It is believed that the stronger these desire are present in an individual, the greater will be the effort towards achieving the goals. Motivation is essential in the learning process in order to improve the learning outcomes. It is also provides the desire in the pupils to learn.

5(b) (Repeated Question 2012, No. 6(b))

6(a) Transfer of Learning (Transfer of Training)
Is the influence that a person's learning in one situation has on his learning and performance in other situations. It is the carry over of learning experiences in one situation into other learning experiences. For example, if a pupil carries over his learning of addition and subtraction of money in school to the real life shopping situation (where he gives or takes change) then there has been a transfer of learning. Hence, the whole concept of transfer of learning is about how much and in what manner that learning of a given material aids, hinders or has no effect upon subsequent learning.

Transfer of learning may be positive in which case learning in situation facilitates our learning. In others, or it may be negative in which case one learning experience interferes with or weakens another. It is also possible that there may be no effect at all of learning one material on another. In this case, it is called zero or neutral transfer.

6(b) Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the increase in the frequency of responses when it is followed by a contingent or associated stimulus (action). It involves an increase in the frequency of a response when positive reinforcer is applied or a negative reinforcer is withdrawn. A positive reinforcer is a stimulus which when applied after a behaviour, tends to strengthen the chance of the behaviour being repeated in future for instance, rewarding a pupil for solving a problem in the class may strengthen of serves as reinforcement for the pupils to strive to respond appropriately in the future.

Negative reinforcer on the other hand is a stimulus which when presented after a behaviour tends to strengthen the probability of discountenance in the future.

Reinforcement can be administered continuously or intermittently. Continuous reinforcement occurs when the expected behaviour of a child is sometimes reinforced and other times not reinforced.

To encourage learning, psychologists especially B.F. Skinner recommended that reward or positive reinforcement should be used minimally or just enough to ensure that the appropriate behaviour will be repeated.

6(c) Punishment
This involves the infliction of pain or discomfort for some wrong doing. For example, canning, flogging, or shaming a pupil in the class.

According to B.F. Skinner, punishment is the decrease in the frequency of response when positive reinforcer is withheld or negative reinforcer is applied. He explained two kinds of punishment, i.e. punishment by application such as corporal punishment and punishment by removal or withdrawal. Punishment has the following characteristics:
i. It is largely an interim measures. It is not longer lasting at best, it only suppresses the overt performance of undesirable behaviour.
ii. Punishment does not necessary change the underlying behaviour that is being punished.
iii. It causes problem of its own by creating student resentment on impairing teacher student relationship.
iv. Physical punishment is generally ineffective, it should be minimally used for better result.

6(d) Premack Principle
Premack Principle (The relativity theory of reinforcement) was postulated by David Premack, a psychologist in 1950s and 1960s. The Premack principle states that preferred behaviours, or behaviours with a higher level of intrinsic reinforcement, can be used as rewards, or reinforcements, for less preferred behaviours.

A formal statement of the premack principle is as follows: high-probability behaviour (those performed frequently, under conditions of free choice), can be used to reinforce low-probability behaviours. For instance, children may be asked to do their homework (sometimes a non-preferred behaviour) before watching TV or playing video games (usually a preferred behaviour).

The principle was developed from a study of cebus monkeys by Prof. David Premack, but has explanatory and predictive power when applied to human beings. In a class setting, teachers who know their students well can give specific rewards to specific students based on the activities they know those student will enjoy. Thus, the principle helps teachers in classroom management.

6(e) Social Learning
Social learning is primarily based on what a child learns in his environment as he interacts and observes others. This assists his socialization process which is consent with his society's expectation.

Social learning is regarded as a powerful mechanism of socialization. The child observes another person who serves as model and then proceeds to imitate what the model does. Many cultures use such imitative patterns as a way of inducting the child into adult ways.

Social learning is facilitated by a number of factors. These according to Mwanwenda (1989) include: attention, memory, motor skills, reinforcement and identification.

The chief proponent of social learning theory was Albert Bandura, a social psychologist of Canadian descent working in America.

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YEAR: 2010 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
PDE 107
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Briefly explain the three (3) modes of Philosophy
(b) Distinguish between common and technical science and relate each to philosophy and Science.
(c) Compare and contrast philosophy and Science

2. (a) What is Metaphysics?
(b) State any Four (4) basic issues of Metaphysics

3. (a) Explain the meaning of Axiology
(b) Differentiate between Ethics and Aesthetics

4. Write short notes on the method of acquisition and significance of the following sources of knowledge:
(i) Revelationism
(ii) Intuitionism
(iii) Authoristarianism

5. (a) What do you understand by the concept of existentialism?
(b) State any Four (4) basic assumptions of existentialism
(c) Describe the implications of existentialism

6. Nigeria aspires "to be a free, democratic and egalitarian society".
(a) What is a free Society?
(b) Discuss the characteristics of democracy
(c) Explain the implication of the idea of democracy and egalitarianism to education.

1(a) 3 (three) modes of philosophy are as follows:
(i) Speculative philosophy
(ii) Prescriptive philosophy
(iii) Analytic philosophy

Speculative Philosophy
Speculative Philosophy is the mode of Philosophy, which systematically speculates about and upon all things. This mode of speculation is limitless as it deals with the real as well as abstract. Speculative philosophy is interested in the search for order, wholeness and linkages in the realm of experience.

Prescriptive Philosophy
Prescriptive philosophy seeks to set standards, grounds or criteria for the judgment of values, conduct and art (Kneller, 1964). It seeks to establish the objectivity or subjectivity of concepts such as good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly etc. In other words, do these qualities adhere in things or are their mere projections of the individual mind?

Analytic Philosophy
This mode of philosophy is concerned with the meaning of words, it analyses the meaning of words such as education, teaching, learning, intelligence, in doctrination, freedom, authority, curriculum, etc, in order to separate them into components.

1(b) Common, Philosophy is taken to refer to one's attitude to life, which is as a result of one's assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and prejudices to things. In this sense, everyone has his own likes, dislikes, prejudices as a result of one's own experiences, upbringing and background. That is to say, everyone has his own philosophy of life, which guides and directs how he conducts himself. Statements like: Honesty is the best policy", Punctuality is the soul of business", No condition is permanent", etc embody personal philosophy or common sense philosophy.

Whereas the technical sense sees philosophy as an academic discipline in which scholars denote their time and energy. It is characterized by logical consistent and systematic thinking, so as to reach conclusions that are sound, coherent and consistent in all their parts. To philosophize, therefore, is to engage in a strenuous activity of thought and to pursue it with no other aim than to satisfy the questioning of human mind. Philosophy in the technical sense, critically examines issues and problems from impartial point of view, thereby exposing biases or prejudices, whether political, economic, social or cultures. In this sense, personal philosophy falls short of the idea of philosophy; it only embodies some rudimentary aspects of it.

1(c) Philosophy and Science have similarities and differences. Amongst the similarities are:
(i) Both are concerned with increasing our understanding of the nature of man and the universe;
(ii) Both are skeptical, critical and constructive;
(iii) Both employ the method of logical, coherent and systematic reasoning;

The differences between philosophy and Science can be seen as follows:
Science employs empirical means – observation, description and experimentation whereas philosophy employs analytic means – the methods of reasoning only. Thus, whereas Science is empirical, philosophy is interpretive.

Whereas, Science produces facts, philosophy is abstract because it deals with what we do not know. Science on the other hand is concrete because it dealt with what we can feel or see, or what we have some degree of knowledge about.

2(a) Metaphysics
The term "metaphysics" has both simple or literal meaning and a technical meaning. It is a branch of philosophy that enquires into the problem of existence. It tries to resolve such issues as: What the ultimate nature, origin and essence of being is; the ground and basis of all existence; the nature of man has a soul and if he has, how does it function, and what happens to it at death? This is into the metaphysics is referred to as an enquiry into the world and the world beyond. At our own individual levels too, we must have been pondering about this issues. This makes metaphysics a foundation of philosophy and the pivot of philosophical enquiries. From etymological point of view, i.e the root of the word, metaphysics, means "after the things of nature".

It came from two Greek words "mata" meaning "after", and physika meaning "nature". In about 70B.C; the Greek philosopher, Andronicus of Rhodes, adopted it when he was editing the work of Aristotle. Metaphysics is thus the study of theory beyond nature which Aristotle called first philosophy. Technically, we can say that metaphysics is that branch of philosophy, which studies the nature of reality. This reality refers to reality of man as a human and non-human i.e world, God etc. In this sense, metaphysics translates into the theory or reality. Metaphysics investigates reality as distinct from that which is illusionary.

2(b) Four (4) Basic issues of Metaphysics are as follows:
(i) Problem of Unity and Diversity
It is true that unity and diversity are observable in the universe. How is it that there is a basic unity in the midst of amazing diversity of things in the universe? The Ionians, the earliest philosophers in the West, were struck by the unity as well as diversity of things in the universe.

(ii) The Problem of Essence and Existence
J.P Sartre's main contention is that existence precedes essence, as opposed to traditional Western philosophy, which gives primacy to essence over existence. Philosophers are divided over which comes first? Is it existence or essence? This is the standing controversy.

(iii) The Problem of Being
For Parmenides whatever exist is being. To him being is one, eternal and unchanging. Aristotle made reference to this being as God who is the pure being. St. Thomas Aquinas in a characteristic Christian metaphysics of being maintains that God is being par excellence. The scholastics philosophers made a distinction between necessary being and contingent being. A necessary being owes his existence to no other being outside himself. A contingent being is not responsible for its own existence, and does not contain within itself the sufficient reason for its existence. Philosophers are divided over this metaphysical issue of reality.

(iv) The Problem of Universal
Philosophers in succession hold that things such as beauty, justice, goodness, whiteness, humanity etc are universals. They are universal concepts and not just ideas in the mind. We recognize them in things that exhibit them, and this means that they real, though they are not physical. Socrates was the first philosopher in the West to articulate the issues of universals. He insisted in the distinction between the universals and the things that exhibit them.

1(a). The teaching task consists of so many discrete skills that must be brought into play before teaching can be successful. Trainee teacher practice and acquire these skills through the method of Micro-teaching. Micro-teaching is a simplified training system designed to enable trainee teachers practice and acquire teaching skills under a supervisor, in a short lesson period of five to ten minutes, with a small group of three to ten students, employing colleagues or video tape for a feedback, focusing attention on only one teaching skill at a time.

According to (Oliver, 1970), Micro-teaching is defined as a scale down sample of actual teaching which generally lasts ten to thirty minutes and involves five to ten students.

To Ohuche, R.O. and Izuwah, I.U.N. (1985), Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching in terms of time, number of students, concepts taught and the teaching skills used.

The processes involved in Micro-teaching include:
(i) Modeling;
(ii) Planning teaching;
(iii) Teaching;
(iv) Observation of teaching; (feedback)
(v) Replanning of teaching;
(vi) Re-teaching;
(vii) Re-observation of teaching.

The technique, which is one of the most effective innovative pedagogical strategies designed to maximize efficiency and effectiveness in the process of guiding student-teachers to develop teaching skills and competences was introduced at Stanford University, U.S.A in 1963 by Allen, W. Dwight, et al.

The use of micro-teaching exposes teacher-trainees to important teaching/learning behaviours which are relevant to the development of the necessary teaching skills required for effectiveness and efficiency in the classroom.

1(b). Differences Between Traditional Teaching Practice and Micro-Teaching.
(i). In traditional teaching practice, the student-teacher is expected to teach many pupils i.e. thirty (30) or more pupils in regular classroom settings. In micro-teaching only about five (5) to ten (10) students are taught and often in a micro-teaching laboratory;

(ii). The orientations of the two approaches are different. In micro-teaching, the objective of a lesson is geared towards the student-teacher mastering a teaching skill. While in traditional teaching practice it is geared towards the student-teacher teaching the pupils certain contents;

(iii). In traditional teaching, the student-teacher is expected to teach the pupils a number of facts and also exhibit mastery of some basic teaching skills. In micro-teaching, the trainee is expected to exhibit only one teaching skill;

(iv). Micro-teaching gives room for immediate feedback and repetition for improved performance whereas in traditional teaching practice, the feedback is not immediate.

2(i) Set Induction
A set induction is anything a teacher present to a learner to make him or her pay attention and learn the lesson. The thing presented should be novel, and must have the power of stimulation, to gain and hold the attention of the learners. It must induce learners to withdraw from other activities and pay undivided attention to the lesson presented by the teacher.

How to induce a set to learn can be done in the following manner:
(1) Preliminary Attention Gaining: For example, the teacher makes sure his students are attending before he begins. This is best achieved by pausing, looking around the class and waiting until the class is ready.

(2) Orientation: For Example, select an event, object, process or device which will interest the students and match the objectives in the lesson.

(ii) Reinforcement
Brown (1975) described Reinforcement as "any technique which modifies or changes behaviour". Reinforcement may be positive which is rewarding, or negative that is with-holding rewards, corrective feedback and punishment. Punishment does not produce long term changes in behaviour. It main use is to temporarily suppress, wrong behaviour whilst the wrong behaviour is suppressed instruction on correct behaviour can be given and when the good behaviour appears it is rewarded.

An example of positive reinforcement is praise. Three types of immediate rein-forcers are available, they include, verbal, extra-verbal and non-verbal. Verbal rein-forcers include praise such as "very good", "that is splendid!", "Fantastic", etc. Non-verbal praise like a smile or a nod of the head or a friendly eye contact may be helpful in building students' confidence. Praise may be extra-verbal like 'mmmmm' or Aaaah! One can use a mixture of these three to reward the students.

Reinforcement also include corrective feedbacks, e.g. No, Not quiet, Try again, or, You mean, etc. and Extra corrective feedbacks, like Mm's and Ah's. This can be used with non-verbal cues like a puzzled from, raising the eye brows, frowning, scratching your head, etc.

(iii) Questioning
Questioning is any statement of interrogation which tests or creates knowledge in the learner. Questioning which tests knowledge is described as lower order cognitive questions. For example, what is the capital of Nigeria? There is usually correct single answer to these type of questions.

Questions which create new knowledge in the learner are called higher order cognitive questions. There are usually no correct answer to these questions, although some answers are clearly better than others. It is higher order cognitive questions which stimulate man's highest levels of thinking and therefore lead man to make discoveries and inventions.

There are eight skills to possess for an effective use of questioning in teaching. These skills are: clarity and coherence, pausing and pacing, directing and distributing as well, probing and prompting.

(iv) Instructional Medial Skills
This is the ability of the teacher to select and handle instructional materials for his lesson. This expertise can be developed through micro-teaching. During lesson planning, the teacher-trainee can developed innovative ideas about the type of instructional materials that could be used or he might decide to improvise.

It is also important to know when and how to handle such materials. Certain materials that will distract the attention of the class need not be brought at all or they should be kept away until required.

(v) Effective Use of Chalk Board
The teacher should be able to use the chalk board effectively. He should mind the way he writes on the board. Writing should be neat and eligible.

It is advisable to divide the board into sections. He should move from one section to the other as he wants. As much as practicable, always leave only the current work on the board in order not to distract the attention of the students and maintain their attention only on the current lesson.

(3). The relevance of micro-teaching to teacher education include:
i) Micro-teaching helps teacher education to achieve her aim of producing high quality skilled teachers;

ii) It reduces the complexities of classroom teaching;

iii) It provides teacher education an effective method of training teachers to acquire a variety of teaching skills;

(iv) it builds up teachers confidence;

(v) It gives immediate feedback and repetition for improved performance,

(vi) Micro-teaching enables separate skills to be practiced and perfected without the distraction of classroom management;

(vii) It provides a low risk for the student teacher.
The best approach to teacher training that imparts practical skills and demonstrates competency based on teacher education is micro teaching. Thus, the relevance of micro-teaching to teacher education is explained below:

(1) Micro-teaching helps teacher education to achieve her aim of producing high quality skilled teachers. This is true because the aim of teacher education is to produce quality teachers. However, quality teachers can hardly be said to be produced without training them to acquire a set of teaching skills. Micro-teaching helps teacher education to retrain teachers to acquire teaching skills;

(ii) Micro-teaching reduces the complexities of class room teaching. Classroom teaching involves many activities that are complex. Micro-teaching simplifies the complexities of classroom teaching by scaling down the lesson content, class size, teaching time and the skills used;

(iii) It provides teacher education an effective method of training teachers to acquire a variety of teaching skills. Micro-teaching is a competency-based teacher education technique with in-built opportunities for inquiry and creativity in teaching. Teachers are trained to adapt to changing situations. Brown and Armstrong(1975), noted that "Micro-teaching is designed to developed new teaching skills and refine old one"

(iv) Micro-teaching builds up teachers' confidence by providing relaxed and controlled secure environment for trainee teachers to acquire teaching skills.

(v) It provides trainee- teachers opportunity for immediate feedback and repetition for improving performance. The student-teachers are given the opportunity to see themselves on the video-tape as they teach. They could see their mistakes and correct them. Hence, it affords trainees the opportunity to critically assess their own performance;

(vi) Micro-teaching provides a low risk for the student-teacher and learners. A risk is taken when a student-teacher who has never taught before goes and teaches above forty (40) pupils;

(vii) It enables separate teaching skills to be practiced and perfected without the distractions of classroom management. Micro-teaching provides many short practices which allow a variety of teaching skills to be acquired step by step in a relaxed and controlled environment for trainee teachers.

The processes involved in Micro-teaching include:

(i) Modelling
There is the need for a model to be evaluated by playing back a recorded video taped or compact disc demonstrating a clear understanding of the particular skill or skills involved. The teacher trainees must be able to earn from this demonstration. This could also be by:
(1) Oral explanations and instructions alone or to complement the video tape;

(2) Written expositions and directions only or to complement video tape and/oral explanations;

(3) Video recording of the master teacher or expert demonstrating the expected special teaching behaviour(s) or skill(s).
Whichever method of the method(s) adopted the teacher-trainee should know what is expected of them and why.

(ii) Planning teaching
Micro-teaching session should be initiated with planning. The plan should start with identifying the teaching skills to practice. The trainee student should identify the teaching that illustrates well his chosen teaching skill and how the teaching skill is applied in a teaching situation. The student-teacher should take note of the dos and don'ts prescribed for the practice of each teaching skill. Identifying the cues his colleagues will look for in their observation of his teaching and the control conditions. The plan for micro-lesson should provide answers to the following questions:
-who are my learners?
-what is the most appropriate sequences of the learning topic and tasks?
-what are the behavioural objectives, what methods and materials will lead to achieving the objectives?
-How will the teaching be evaluated against the set objectives?

(iii) Teaching (Record stage)
The student-teacher should have the teaching skills explained and demonstrated to him before he teaches to practice the teaching skills in a micro-teaching setting. He must imitate the models. When teaching, the student-teacher should face his class of five to ten students with his prepared micro lesson note. The lesson presented should be in an acceptable English language; and the student-teacher should present acceptable appearance too. A particular teaching skill should be presented within the five to ten minutes prescribed time limit.

(iv) Observation of Teaching
Immediately after teaching, the performance of the student teacher will be critique by his colleagues who observed him teach in the light of his set objectives and examples of the model. He will receive a feedback of result of how he performed and how he can improve his performance under the guidance of a supervisor. It is important to note that the student teacher's colleagues may evaluate him on a point scale. If he receives a low score, he is expected to re-plan, re-teach his lesson and will be re-observed until he improves his performance.

(v) Re-Planning Teaching
This involves re-examining the planned micro-lesson to correct its defects. The trainee teacher may wish to plan a new micro-lesson on a different micro-lesson topic, but applying the skill under practice.

(vi) Re-Teaching/Re-Recording
The student-teacher re-teach the micro-lesson in the light of suggestions made by his supervisor and colleagues. He should be encouraged to re-teach his micro-lesson by the fact that practice makes perfect. The revised lesson is re-taught to another set of pupils. The reason for the change of learners is to avoid the effect of boredom in the pupils. The re-teach is also video-taped or audio-taped.

(vii) Re-Observation of Teaching/Re-Critiquing
The trainee teacher will be re-observed by his colleagues during his teaching performance and give an immediate feedback or knowledge of result on how well or how bad he taught his lesson when applying the teaching skill. If he earns a high score, it shows that he has improved his performance. It is also an indication that he has acquired the teaching skill practiced on. After this, he can now move on to other skills.

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YEAR 2011 - MICRO-TEACHING (PDE 111)
=====================================

YEAR: 2011 MICRO-TEACHING
(PDE 111) TIME: 2 HOURS
INSTRUCTIONS:
i. This is a Two (2) Credit Course.
ii. Answer four (4) questions in all.
iii. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Carefully explain the guiding principles for the selection of
good teaching methods.
(b) As a teacher trainee, what would you consider to be the
qualities that a good teacher must possess?

2 (a) Explain the concept of Micro-Teaching?
(b) Identify the processes involved in Micro Teaching.

3. Identify and discuss the merits and demerits of Micro-Teaching in a teacher training education programme.

4. (a) What do you understand by lecture method?
(b) Explain the advantages of using lecture method.

5. (a) What are instructional materials?
(b) Justify the reasons for using instructional materials in
teaching/learning process.

6 (a) What is improvisation?
(b) Explain the following improvisation concepts:-
(i) Imitative media production
(ii) Adaptive media production
(iii) Creative media production

1(a) There are some guiding principles for the selection of good teaching methods. These include:

(i) The Objectives of the Lesson must be Clear: This is a strong factor which should guide the teacher in his choice. The method chosen must be in agreement with the activities that can lead to the achievement of the objectives of the lesson;

(ii) The Age and Class of the Pupils: These determine the maturation of the pupils to learn certain topics using certain methods. Maturation or readiness is an important factor in learning. Certain methods are meaningful to certain ages. For example, for pupils in the Nursery classes and Primary 1, the play method is ideal for them such a method should not be used with teenagers in higher institutions. In the same manner, the toddlers of the Nursery classes will not give lecture methods any recognition;

(iii) The Nature of the Class Pupils
This may be divided into three areas:
(1) The biological composition of the class pupils;
(2) The average rate of assimilation of the class; and
(3) The inquisitive and the instructive nature of the class pupils. The teacher using the individual method can comfortably handle a class of 20 or 25 pupils; he would have time to pay more attention to each individual. The situation cannot be the same in a class of about 40 pupils or more. Often, the teacher uses the class and lecture methods among others.

(x) The Size and Location of the School
Usually in small schools without a big hall, and some streams of a class, a teacher teaches all the subjects in a class. Team teaching technique cannot be successfully used in this regard. Team teaching technique can be used in a big school with a big hall and many streams of a class.

The accessibility or non-accessibility to certain resources do affect the choice of a method. For example, in learning about transportation in Nigeria, in Geography, a teacher in Port-Harcourt may decide to take his class to the seaport, the airport, the railway station as well as the motor garage to see the vehicles as well as activities in such places unlike a teacher in Geidam in Bronu state who depends on pictures, descriptions and perhaps audio-visual aids to make the pupils understand the concept of a steamer ship, an aeroplane and a railway train. While the Port-Harcourt teacher may use field study, the Geidam teacher may depend on lecture method.

Other considerations include the pupils' interest, development of individual potentialities, etc.

1(b) Some of the qualities a good teacher is supposed to possess include the following:-

(i) Good Character
Teacher as a moulder of lives must be an embodiment of good character. A good and effective teacher is one who respects the truth, who is sincere in word and act, and whose personal life sets a good example to his pupils.

He/she must like people especially the young ones. The teacher with good sense of homour and care for the young ones instills confidence in the parents that their children are in safe hands. Students soon get to know the teacher that is sincere and honest.

A good teacher always takes interest in his students' genuine personal problems and shows a lot of understanding in assisting to solve them. He treats any personal problems of his students with utmost confidentiality with a view of enlisting their confidence.

(viii) Firmness
As much as the teacher is kind towards his students, he should be firm in ensuring fair-play and equal treatment to all. Students are often confused when he changes his rule frequently. Teacher's weaknesses are exposed by his inconsistency in enforcing rules and acceptable mode of behaviour. Any attempt to show preferential treatment to his students will make him lose respect and so lack his students' confidence.

(ix) He Must be Active in the Community and Ready to Initiate Parents Contacts
A good teacher must always show co-operation to the parents of his students in finding solution to their students' problems.

(x) Effective Communication
A good teacher does not leave his students in doubt on what he wants them to do. He gives clear instructions and direct orders that elicit understanding from his students. He is expected to have adequate knowledge of the language being used as medium of instruction in schools.

In addition to having adequate knowledge of the subject-matter with good personality, the teacher needs to present his lesson with good, simple and clear language adequately to the students' level and population. He is expected to be fluent and accurate in his speech; his voice must be lively, pleasant and audible everywhere in the classroom to avoid monotony.

(ii) Very Competent to Handle His/Her Teaching Subject
A good teacher must know his subject inside out, not just what he is to cover as shown in the syllabus. A teacher's knowledge of the subject must be above that of non-education graduate of the same field. It is only then that a teacher can open the doors of this field in an interesting and exciting manner to the students.

(iii) Willing to Add to His/Her Knowledge
Education is not static, new knowledge, ideas and insight of application of this knowledge come out daily. A teacher who does not update his knowledge regularly always find the slightest opportunity to update their knowledge and skills.

(iv) A Good Teacher Must Be Flexible and Open-Minded.
He is not fixed and limited in his ways. He is always ready to receive new ideas especially those that will foster positive development. He sees things in different angles, thus approaches a topic from several view points. A good teacher has a creative mind.

(v) Faces Reality In An Objective Way.
A good teacher does not allow his emotions to cloud his judgment. He has a way of ascertaining facts. A good teacher seeks help and tries to free himself from any emotions that will upset him and or make him sway to his personal or irrational judgment on topical issues;

(vi) Neatness
A good teacher leads by example in this regard. Though not necessarily expensive but his dressing should be neat, clean and smart. He should emphasize the culture of cleanliness in his pupils and should try to live a healthy life.

(vii) Kindness and Understanding
A good teacher is always friendly and helpful to his students. Being aggressive does not help the situation as it will only distance the students from the teacher, thus making it difficult for him to understand their problem.

(2a) Repeated question (2010, No.1(a) )

(2b) The processes involved in Micro-teaching are:
(i) Modelling; (ii) Planning Teaching; (iii) Teaching Stage;
(iv) Observation of teaching (feedback) (v) Re-planning of teaching
(vi) Re-teaching; (vii) Re-observation of teaching.

(1a) Statistics can be described as the science comprising rules and procedures for collecting, organizing, summarizing, describing, analyzing and interpreting numeric data which are used in making decisions, valid estimates, predictions and generalizations.

Advantages of Statistical Methods in Education:

• They permit the most exact kind of description;
• They force us to be definite and exact in our procedure and in our thinking;
• They enable us to summarize our results in a meaningful and convenient form. It gives order to our data so that we can see the forest as well as the individual tree;
• They enable us to draw general conclusions in accordance with accepted rules. It puts a limit on the conclusion and how far we can extend our generalization;
• They enable us to analyze some of the causal factors underlying complex events. Causal factors are usually best uncovered and proved by means of experiments. In education and social sciences this may not be possible in most cases; statistical methods are therefore often a necessary substitute for, and a constant companion of, experiments;
• They enable us to predict “how much” of a given event will occur under specified and measured conditions.

(1b)

(i) Data: This is a collection of information, qualitative or quantitative. Unprocessed information can be termed “raw data”.

(ii) Distribution: This is the arrangement of a set of numbers classified according to some property.

(iii) Population: This refers to the group of measurements that are of interest, i.e. the aggregate of units to be covered. This may be people, objects, materials, measurements or things.

(iv) Sample: This is a part or subset of a population. The sample is usually the portion of the population appropriately selected for observation.

(v) Parameter: This is a descriptive measure or characteristic, the true value of a population. When such characteristics as mean, standard deviation or variance of a population are computed, they are called parameters.

(2a) A variable is a characteristic or property that can take on different values. It refers to a property where the members of a group or set differ from one another; for example, individuals in a class may differ in terms of age, sex, intelligence, height, etc. These properties are called variables.

Types of Variables in Educational Research:

Quantitative Variables: These variables take values that vary in terms of magnitude. They are easy to measure and compare with one another. These may be scores obtained in a test, weight, height, age, distance, number, etc.

Qualitative Variables: These are variables that differ in kind. They are only categorized. The differences are usually in kind. For example, marital status, gender, nationality, socio-economic status, educational qualification, etc.

Discrete Variables: These are variables which can take only a finite set of values, implying that fractional values are not allowed. These variables are generated by a counting process, usually in whole numbers, e.g. the number of goals scored in a football match, the number of teachers in a school, etc.

Continuous Variables: These are variables which can take on any value over a range of feasible values. Here, the measured data can be whole numbers or fractions, e.g. weight, height, distance, etc.

Treatment or Active Variable: This variable is defined as one that can be directly manipulated by the researcher and to which he or she assigns subjects. This group includes method of teaching, method of grouping and reinforcement procedures.

Intervening Variable: This is the variable that affects the outcome of our research but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated. Examples include motives, emotional state, family circumstance, religious beliefs, health, political ideology, etc. In serious research work, the researcher should be able to conceptualize or infer possible intervening variables and, in fact, state them as part of the limitations of the study.

(2b) The independent variable is one that is manipulated or treated. The effect of this manipulation is what is manifested in the dependent variable. That is, the value of the dependent variable depends on that of the independent variable. Also, the value of the dependent variable is usually predicted from that of the independent variable.

Thus, an independent variable may be called a predictor variable because it can predict or is responsible for the status of the other variable. For example, when comparing the effect of two teaching methods on students' learning achievement, the teaching methods are the independent variables while learning achievement is the dependent variable.

(3i) The mode of the distribution is 60 because it has the highest frequency.

(3ii) The arithmetic mean is given by:

Mean = (50 + 60 + 75 + 85 + 67 + 60 + 56 + 70) ÷ 8

= 523 ÷ 8

= 65.375 Ans.

(3iii) The median is the middle value when the distribution is arranged either in ascending or descending order. For example:

Arranged: 50, 56, 60, 60, 67, 70, 75, 85.

Median = (60 + 67) ÷ 2 = 127 ÷ 2 = 63.5 Ans.

(3iv) The uniqueness of the mode means that in any given distribution, its mode is only one number. For example, given the distribution:

50, 56, 60, 60, 67, 70, 75, 85.

Only 60 appears twice, hence the mode is unique.

(4a) It is almost impossible and impractical for the researcher to reach the whole population. No doubt the best results are obtained if each and every item of our population is covered, but to be feasible and quick, researchers randomly select a part of a population which is called a sample. If a sample is chosen properly, characteristics of the entire population that the sample is drawn from can be inferred from corresponding characteristics of the sample.

The significance of sampling in educational research includes:

• Economy in terms of time, money, effort, personnel and space;
• Inaccessibility of the population;
• Infinite population;
• Quality and accuracy;
• Speed and timeliness.

Population consists of all members of any well-defined class of people, events, objects, etc. It is a complete set of items that share at least one property in common that is the subject of a statistical analysis. In contrast, a statistical sample is a subset drawn from the population to represent the population in a statistical analysis.

(4b) The methods of sampling techniques include:

• Random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Quota sampling
• Double sampling
• Area sampling
• Replicated sampling
• Accidental sampling
• Sample size determination
(i) Random Sampling

Random sampling is the process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals in the defined population have an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample. This means that every individual has the same probability of being selected and the selection of one individual in no way affects selection of another individual. Simple random sampling as used here means sampling without replacement. This is different from unrestricted random sampling, which implies “sampling with replacement”. This means that the individual selected at each draw is replaced into the population before the next draw is made.

There are two major ways of carrying out simple random sampling:

• Take-a-pick lottery method, and
• Use of random numbers.
(ii) Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is the kind of sampling in which groups, not individuals, are randomly selected. All the members of the selected groups have the same characteristics.

Any intact group of similar characteristics is a cluster, e.g. classrooms, schools, city blocks, etc. The procedural requirements for cluster sampling are that:

• the clusters included in a study must be randomly selected from the population of clusters;
• once a cluster is selected, then all the members of the cluster must be included in the sample.

(5a)(i) Probability

The probability of an event is the relative frequency of occurrence of the event when the number of trials of the experiment (observations) is very large.

Probability, as an aspect of applied mathematics or a branch of statistics, may be referred to as the science of quantifying or gauging the odds for, or chance of, an event occurring.

If in an experiment there are n possible outcomes that are equally likely and the event E can occur K times or in K ways, then the probability of E, Pr(E) = P = k/n.

The probability that event E does not occur is Pr(not E) = q = (n − k)/n.

(ii) Sample Space

This is the totality of all results in a chance experiment. For example, in a fair die, the sample space, S, is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

(iii) Event Space

This is a part of the sample space under consideration. For example, in a single toss of a fair die, either 1, or 2, etc. appearing is an event space.

(iv) Mutually Exclusive Events

These are events that do not depend on the outcomes of one another. The occurrence of one event eliminates the occurrence of the other event. For example, in a single toss of a fair coin, getting a Head, H, or a Tail, T, are mutually exclusive events.

By extension, if E1, E2, … En are n mutually exclusive events, then Pr{E1 E2 … En} = 0, while Pr(E1 + E2 + … + En) = Pr(E1) + Pr(E2) + … + Pr(En).

(5b)(i) Sample Space, S (three fair coins tossed):

S = { HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT }

(This is generated by the tree diagram: 1st toss H or T → 2nd toss H or T → 3rd toss H or T, giving 2×2×2 = 8 equally likely outcomes.)
(ii) Probability that two tails turn up = 3/8 = 0.375

(iii) Probability that two heads turn up = 3/8 = 0.375

(iv) Probability that at least a tail turns up = 7/8 = 0.875

P(x) = ⁿCₓ Pˣ qⁿ⁻ˣ

Where n = 6; x = 3; p = 0.4; q = 0.6

P(3) = ⁶C₃ (0.4)³ (0.6)³

= 20 × 0.064 × 0.216

= 0.27648

(Note: the source document rounds this to 0.27652.)

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YEAR 2011 – STATISTICAL METHODS IN EDUCATION (PDE 110)
Time: 2 Hours
Instructions: This is a two (2) credit course. Answer any four (4) questions. All questions carry equal marks.
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(1a) Statistics is defined as the science comprising rules and procedures for collecting, organizing, summarizing, describing, analyzing, presenting and interpreting numerical data which are used in making decisions, valid estimates, predictions and generalizations. While Statistic refers to a descriptive measure or characteristic of a sample. For example, if we compute the average age of candidates from a given school or state, then the average age is a statistic.

(1b) The primary purposes of statistics are to:

• reduce a large array of data to a manageable and comprehensible form;
• aid in the study of populations and samples;
• aid in making reliable inferences about events based on observational data; and
• help in arriving at valid and reliable decisions and generalizations.

The Role of Statistics in Education:

• Determination of educational needs of the community – population, age distribution, state finance, priorities, manpower, growth rate, existing institutions, personnel, etc.
• Planning for physical resources (school plant), i.e. when determining the number of classrooms, etc.
• Planning for human resources. Accurate projections should be made on population, from which the number of classes, teachers, students and other non-teaching staff would be determined.
• Statistics is used in education for budgeting;
• For inspection and school record-keeping;
• Continuous assessment, record keeping and reporting.

Group A (X₁): 9, 17, 16, 15, 14, 15, 10, 18, 18, 20, 26, 11, 12 — ΣX₁ = 201

Group B (X₂): 6, 10, 12, 18, 13, 16, 11, 9, 19, 5, 15, 10 — ΣX₂ = 144

X̄₁ = 201 ÷ 13 = 15.46 X̄₂ = 144 ÷ 12 = 12.00

| X₁ | X₁ − X̄₁ | (X₁ − X̄₁)² | X₂ | X₂ − X̄₂ | (X₂ − X̄₂)² |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 9 | −6.46 | 41.73 | 6 | −6 | 36 |
| 17 | 1.54 | 2.37 | 10 | −2 | 4 |
| 16 | 0.54 | 0.29 | 12 | 0 | 0 |
| 15 | −0.46 | 0.21 | 18 | +6 | 36 |
| 14 | −1.46 | 2.13 | 13 | +1 | 1 |
| 15 | −0.46 | 0.21 | 16 | +4 | 16 |
| 10 | −5.46 | 29.81 | 11 | −1 | 1 |
| 18 | 2.54 | 6.45 | 9 | −3 | 9 |
| 18 | 2.54 | 6.45 | 19 | +7 | 49 |
| 20 | 4.54 | 20.61 | 5 | −7 | 49 |
| 26 | 10.54 | 111.09 | 15 | +3 | 9 |
| 11 | −4.46 | 19.89 | 10 | −2 | 4 |
| 12 | −3.46 | 11.97 | – | – | – |
| | | Σ = 253.21 | | | Σ = 214 |

S₁² = 253.21 ÷ 13 = 19.4777 → Variance = 19.4777 → Standard Deviation, S₁ = 4.4134

S₂² = 214 ÷ 12 = 17.8333 → Variance = 17.8333 → Standard Deviation, S₂ = 4.2229

t = (X̄₁ − X̄₂) ÷ √[(S₁)²/n₁ + (S₂)²/n₂]

= (15.46 − 12.00) ÷ √[(4.4134)²/13 + (4.2229)²/12]

= 3.46 ÷ √(1.2241 + 1.48607)

= 3.46 ÷ √2.71017

= 3.46 ÷ 1.6463

= 1.2766

Degree of Freedom, df = n₁ + n₂ − 2 = 13 + 12 − 2 = 23

t-calculated = 1.2766; P = 0.05; df = 8; t-critical = 2.069

From the above analysis, t-calculated of 1.2766 is less than the t-critical of 2.069, which means that the null hypothesis, H₀, is retained and the alternative hypothesis is rejected.

Hence, there is no significant difference between the scores.

(3a) A statistical hypothesis is an assertion about the distribution of one or more random variables or a population. It is frequently denoted by symbols such as H₀ or H₁. A test of statistical hypothesis is a procedure, based on the observed values of the random variables, that may lead to the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis. If a null hypothesis is found to be true, then it is accepted; but if not, it is rejected and an alternative form is then opted for.

(3b) A null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between two or more parameters. It involves a judgement as to whether observed differences or relationships are true differences or relationships, or whether they are due to sampling error. The chance explanation for the difference or relationship is called the null hypothesis. Null hypothesis is denoted by H₀.

Alternative hypothesis (H₁) states that there is a statistical difference or relationship between two or more parameters. Furthermore, an alternative hypothesis can be stated in a directional or non-directional manner, unlike the null hypothesis. A directional hypothesis is the one that specifies the direction of the expected findings. It does not only indicate that there is a difference or relationship, but gives the direction of the difference. A non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction the expected differences or relationships may take, like in the directional hypothesis.

An alternative hypothesis (H₁) refers to a sample, whereas the null hypothesis always refers to the population, and thus an alternative hypothesis can be directly tested and is explicit. On the other hand, the null hypothesis can only be indirectly tested and therefore is implied (Salkind, 2008).